Contents
Authors xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Structure, properties, and application 1
1.2 Sustainability aspects of construction with TRC 5
1.3 Innovation with TRC 8
References 10
2 Textiles 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Fiber materials 15
2.2.1 Man-made fibers 16
2.2.1.1 Basic production principles 16
2.2.1.2 Fiber types 20
2.2.2 Natural fibers 34
2.2.2.1 Asbestos 34
2.2.2.2 Basalt fibers 35
2.2.2.3 Plant fibers 36
2.3 Yarn types 37
2.4 Main fabric structures 40
2.4.1 Woven fabric 41
2.4.2 Knitted fabric 42
2.4.2.1 Weft knitted 43
2.4.2.2 Warp knitted 43
2.4.3 Bonded fabric 44
2.4.4 Nonwoven fabric 44
2.4.5 Braided fabric 45
2.5 Principal architectural characteristics of fabric and its yarns 45
2.5.1 General concept 45
2.5.2 Reinforcing yarn orientation 48
2.5.2.1 Flat structures (2D) 48
2.5.2.2 Bulky fabrics (3D) 50
2.5.3 Reinforcing yarn shape 51
2.5.3.1 Woven fabrics 52
2.5.3.2 Warp-knitted fabrics 54
2.6 Mechanical properties and coating of textiles 60
2.6.1 Fibers 61
2.6.2 Bundles 63
2.6.3 Fabrics 65
2.7 Summary 72
References 72
3 Fabrication of TRC 79
3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Hand lay-up 81
3.3 Filament winding 82
3.4 Pultrusion 82
3.5 Prestressed technique 84
3.6 Sandwich panels 86
3.7 Complex-geometry-shaped elements 86
3.8 Summary 90
References 90
4 Micromechanics and microstructure 95
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Bond and pullout 99
4.3 Microstructure and bonding of multifilament yarns 103
4.3.1 Nature of the reinforcement and matrix 103
4.3.2 Microstructure and bonding processes 104
4.3.3 Quantification of the pullout in bundled reinforcement 114
4.3.3.1 Sleeve and core layer modeling 118
4.3.3.2 Multilayer modeling 125
4.4 Bonding in a fabric 135
4.4.1 Modeling 136
4.4.1.1 Equivalent single-fiber modeling 137
4.4.1.2 Pullout mechanisms in fabric–cement systems 137
4.4.2 Mechanical anchoring induced by fabric geometry 145
4.4.3 Coupling of fabric structure and production process 148
4.5 Treatments to enhance bond 157
References 162
5 Mechanical performance under static conditions 166
5.1 Introduction 166
5.2 Influence of the matrix on composite mechanical performance 169
5.2.1 Matrix compositions 169
5.2.2 Low-alkalinity cements 173
5.2.3 Admixtures 174
5.2.4 Short fibers 177
5.2.4.1 Short fiber incorporation in the matrix 177
5.2.4.2 Nonwoven fabrics with short fibers 182
5.3 Influence of TRC fiber material 183
5.3.1 Single fiber material 183
5.3.1.1 Synthetic fibers 183
5.3.1.2 Basalt fibers 189
5.3.1.3 Vegetable fibers 192
5.3.2 Hybrid fiber materials 192
5.3.2.1 Introduction 192
5.3.2.2 Hybrid fabrics 194
5.4 Influences of fabric geometry and yarn direction on composite mechanical performance 201
5.4.1 Introduction 201
5.4.2 Fabric structure and yarn shape 201
5.4.2.1 General concept 201
5.4.2.2 Mesh openings 203
5.4.2.3 Density of the transverse yarns 205
5.4.2.4 Type of junction connection 208
5.4.2.5 Bundle diameter: number of filaments 214
5.4.2.6 Yarn shape 216
5.4.2.7 Fabric orientation 223
5.4.3 Three-dimensional (3D) fabrics 230
5.5 Influence of coating on composite mechanical performance 240
5.6 Influence of processing on composite mechanical performance 245
References 253
6 Mechanics of TRC composite 262
6.1 Introduction 262
6.2 Experimental observations of mechanical response 264
6.2.1 Nonlinear stress–strain response 264
6.2.2 Effect of specimen thickness and fabric orientation 265
6.2.3 Distributed cracking and spacing evolution 267
6.3 Modeling of tension response using experimental crack spacing results 270
6.3.1 Model representation 271
6.3.2 Stresses and deformations in the distributed cracking zone 273
6.3.3 Comparison with experimental results 275
6.3.4 Distributed cracking and tension stiffening 277
References 283
7 Flexural modeling and design 285
7.1 Introduction 285
7.2 Quantification of flexural behavior 287
7.2.1 Derivation of moment–curvature relationship 287
7.2.2 Simplified procedure for generation of moment–curvature response 292
7.2.3 Algorithm to predict load–deflection response 294
7.2.4 Deflection computation using a bilinear moment–curvature assumption 295
7.2.5 Parametric studies of load–deflection response 296
7.2.6 Inverse analysis of the load–deflection response of TRC composites 298
7.2.6.1 AR glass TRC 299
7.2.6.2 PE ECC 299
7.3 Case studies 301
7.3.1 Prediction of load–deflection response 301
7.4 Flexural design 305
7.4.1 Design guidelines for 1D and 2D members 305
7.4.2 Capacity calculations based on section moment–curvature 306
7.4.3 Demand calculations using yield line analysis 307
7.4.3.1 Virtual work method (upper bound approach) 308
7.4.3.2 Equilibrium method (lower bound method) 309
7.4.4 Collapse mechanism in plastic analysis 310
7.4.5 Analysis of 2D panels 311
7.4.5.1 Case study 1: Square panel with free edges 311
7.4.5.2 Case study 2: Square panel with edges clamped 312
7.4.5.3 Case study 3: Rectangular slab with clamped edges 313
7.4.5.4 Case study 4: Circular slab with free edges 316
7.4.6 Design of TRC members supported on a substrate 317
7.4.7 Design of simply supported TRC beam under distributed load 318
References 322
8 High rate loading 325
8.1 Introduction 325
8.2 High-speed response and testing systems 326
8.2.1 Strain measurement techniques 328
8.2.2 Strain measurement using digital image correlation (DIC) method 330
8.2.3 Noncontact laser-based strain extensometer 330
8.3 Failure mechanisms 332
8.4 Formation and characterization of distributed cracking 335
8.5 Hybrid systems: short fibers with TRC 336
8.6 Modeling of behavior at high-speed using a tension-stiffening model 344
8.7 Flexural impact loading 349
8.7.1 Introduction 349
8.7.2 Impact test procedures 350
8.7.3 Impact response of TRC 351
8.7.4 Effect of textile orientation 353
References 359
9 Durability of TRC 365
9.1 Introduction 365
9.2 Durability of the composite material 366
9.2.1 Chemical durability of the reinforcing yarns 367
9.2.1.1 Durability of glass reinforcement 368
9.2.1.2 Durability of polymeric reinforcement 371
9.2.1.3 Microstructural changes and aging 373
9.2.2 Modifying microstructure to enhance durability performance 380
9.2.2.1 Fiber treatment 380
9.2.2.2 Matrix composition 388
9.3 Aging mechanisms 393
9.3.1 Chemical attack mechanism 393
9.3.2 Microstructural mechanisms 393
9.3.2.1 Internal bonding in the bundle and loss of its flexibility 394
9.3.2.2 Flaw enlargement and notching 396
9.3.2.3 Combined mechanisms 398
9.3.3 Effectiveness of various aging mechanisms in controlling long-term performance 399
9.4 Long-term performance of TRC components 404
9.4.1 Penetration of fluids 405
9.4.2 Penetration of chlorides 409
9.4.3 Crack healing 410
References 415
10 Repair and retrofit with TRC 421
10.1 Shear strengthening 422
10.2 Flexural strengthening 427
10.3 Compression strengthening in columns
and column–beam joints 436
10.4 Bonding 445
References 447
11 Innovative applications of textile reinforced concrete (TRC) for sustainability and efficiency 449
11.1 Potential for TRC integration in novel construction 449
11.2 Structural shapes using TRC materials 450
11.3 Modular and panelized cementitious construction systems 453
11.4 Cast-in-place modular homes 453
11.5 Sandwich composites with TRC skin-aerated fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) 455
11.6 Computational tools for design of TRC components: Case study 458
11.7 Natural fiber systems 460
References 461
Index 465