Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, Eighth Edition
By William C. Ober, Claire E. Ober, Kathleen Welch and Kevin Petti
Contents:
1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 1
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body 2
1-1 All living things display responsiveness, growth, reproduction, movement, and metabolism 2
1-2 Anatomy is structure, and physiology is function 3
Anatomy • Physiology
1-3 Levels of organization progress from atoms and molecules to a complete organism 4
1-4 The human body consists of 11 organ systems 6
1-5 Homeostasis is the state of internal balance 6
1-6 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, whereas positive feedback exaggerates them 10
Negative Feedback • Positive Feedback
1-7 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical positions and directions, and body sections 13
Surface Anatomy • Sectional Anatomy
1-8 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs and allow them to change shape 15
The Thoracic Cavity • The Abdominopelvic Cavity
SPOTLIGHT
Levels of Organization 5
CLINICAL NOTES
Homeostasis and Disease 6
Imaging Techniques 20
Chapter Review 22
2 The Chemical Level of Organization 25
An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization 26
2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter 26
Atomic Structure • Isotopes • Atomic Weight • Electron Shells
2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by interactions between atoms 28
Ionic Bonds • Covalent Bonds • Hydrogen Bonds
2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions are important chemical reactions in
physiology 31
Basic Energy Concepts • Types of Reactions •Reversible Reactions
2-4 Enzymes catalyze specific biochemical reactions by lowering a reaction’s activation energy 34
2-5 Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon, and organic compounds always contain carbon 34
2-6 Physiological systems depend on water 35
2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis 36
2-8 Acids, bases, and salts have important physiological roles 37
Salts • Buffers and pH
2-9 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio 38
Monosaccharides • Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
2-10 Lipids contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of 1:2 40
Fatty Acids • Fats • Steroids • Phospholipids
2-11 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed from amino acids 43
Protein Function • Protein Structure • Enzyme Function
2-12 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids 46
Structure of Nucleic Acids
2-13 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 48
2-14 Chemicals form functional units called cells 50
SPOTLIGHT
Chemical Notation 32
CLINICAL NOTE
Too Sweet on Sugar? 41
Chapter Review 51
3 Cell Structure and Function 55
An Introduction to Cell Structure and Function 56
3-1 The study of cells provides the foundation for understanding human physiology 56
The Study of Cells • An Overview of Cell Anatomy
3-2 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs
various functions 57
Membrane Lipids • Membrane Proteins • Membrane Carbohydrates
3-3 Diffusion is a passive transport process that assists membrane passage 61
Diffusion
3-4 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport processes assist membrane passage 65
Carrier-Mediated Transport • Vesicular Transport
3-5 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform specific functions 69
The Cytosol • The Organelles
3-6 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities 76
Nuclear Structure and Contents • Information Storage in the Nucleus
3-7 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function 78
Transcription • Translation
3-8 Stages of a cell’s life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis 81
Interphase • Mitosis • Cytokinesis
3-9 Tumors and cancers are characterized by abnormal cell growth and division 84
3-10 Cellular differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression 85
SPOTLIGHT
Anatomy of a Model Cell 58
Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging 74
CLINICAL NOTES
Inheritable Mitochondrial Disorders 73
DNA Fingerprinting 78
Mutations and Mosaicism 82
Chapter Review 86
4 The Tissue Level of Organization 90
An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization 91
4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous 91
4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines cavities
and tubular structures, and serves essential functions 91
Functions of Epithelia • Intercellular Connections •The Epithelial Surface • The Basement Membrane •
Epithelial Renewal and Repair
4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the classification of epithelia 95
Cell Layers • Cell Shapes • Classification of Epithelia • Glandular Epithelia
4-4 Connective tissue provides a protective structural framework for other tissue types 101
Connective Tissue Proper • Types of Connective Tissue Proper • Fluid Connective Tissues •
Supporting
Connective Tissues
4-5 Tissue membranes are physical barriers of four types: mucous, serous, cutaneous, and synovial 110
Mucous Membranes • Serous Membranes • The Cutaneous Membrane • Synovial Membranes
4-6 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth 111
Skeletal Muscle Tissue • Cardiac Muscle
Tissue • Smooth Muscle Tissue
4-7 Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and propagates electrical impulses throughout the body 113
4-8 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration 114
4-9 With advancing age, tissue repair declines and cancer rates increase 115
Aging and Tissue Structure • Aging and Cancer Rates
SPOTLIGHT
Inflammation and Regeneration 116
CLINICAL NOTES
Exfoliative Cytology 101
Marfan Syndrome 104
Adipose Tissue and Weight Control 106
Cartilages and Joint Injuries 107
Chapter Review 117
5 The Integumentary
System 121
An Introduction to the Integumentary System 122
5-1 The epidermis is composed of strata (layers) with
various functions 123
Stratum Basale • Intermediate Strata •
Stratum Corneum
5-2 Epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation
influence skin color 126
The Role of Pigmentation • The Role of Dermal Circulation
5-3 Sunlight has beneficial and detrimental effects on the skin 127
The Epidermis and Vitamin D3 • Skin Cancers
5-4 The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the epidermis 128
5-5 The subcutaneous layer connects the dermis to underlying tissues 129
5-6 Hair is composed of dead, keratinized cells that
have been pushed to the skin surface 129
The Structure of Hair and Hair Follicles • Functions of Hair • Hair Color
5-7 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine glands found in the skin 132
Sebaceous (Oil) Glands • Sweat Glands
5-8 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect
the tips of fingers and toes 133
5-9 After an injury, the integument is repaired in several phases 134
Repair of Skin Injuries • Effects of Burns
5-10 Effects of aging include dermal thinning, wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity 137
SPOTLIGHT
The Epidermis 124
CLINICAL NOTES
Drug Administration through the Skin 125
Disorders of Keratin Production 126
Dermatitis 128
Hair Loss 131
Burns 136
Chapter Review 139
6 The Skeletal
System 142
An Introduction to the Skeletal System 143
6-1 The skeletal system has five major functions 143
6-2 Bones are classified according to shape and structure 143
Macroscopic Features of Bone • Microscopic Features of Bone
6-3 Ossification and appositional growth are processes of bone formation and enlargement 146
Intramembranous Ossification • Endochondral
Ossification • Bone Growth and Body Proportions • Requirements for Normal Bone Growth
6-4 Bone growth and development depend on a balance between bone formation and resorption,
and on calcium availability 149
The Role of Remodeling in Support • The Skeleton as a
Calcium Reserve • Repair of Fractures
6-5 Osteopenia has a widespread effect on aging skeletal tissue 152
6-6 The bones of the skeleton are distinguished by
bone markings and grouped into two skeletal
divisions 152
Bone Markings (Surface Features) • Skeletal Divisions
6-7 The bones of the skull, vertebral column, and
thoracic cage make up the axial skeleton 156
The Skull • The Vertebral Column and Thoracic Cage
6-8 The pectoral girdles and upper limb bones, and the
pelvic girdle and lower limb bones, make up the
appendicular skeleton 166
The Pectoral Girdles • The Upper Limb • The Pelvic
Girdle • The Lower Limb
6-9 Joints are categorized according to their range of
motion or anatomical organization 174
Immovable Joints (Synarthroses) • Slightly Movable
Joints (Amphiarthroses) • Freely Movable Joints
(Diarthroses)
6-10 The structure and functions of synovial joints
enable various skeletal movements 176
Types of Movements at Synovial Joints • Types of
Synovial Joints
6-11 Intervertebral joints and appendicular joints
demonstrate functional differences in support
and mobility 179
Intervertebral Joints • Joints of the Upper Limb •
Joints of the Lower Limb
6-12 The skeletal system supports and stores energy
and minerals for other body systems 184
SPOTLIGHT
Synovial Joints 180
CLINICAL NOTES
Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair 150
Osteoporosis 152
Rheumatism and Arthritis 176
Hip Fractures 184
Chapter Review 186
7 The Muscular
System 191
An Introduction to Muscle Tissue 192
7-1 Skeletal muscle performs five primary functions 192
7-2 A skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective
tissues, blood vessels, and nerves 192
Connective Tissue Organization • Blood Vessels and
Nerves
7-3 Skeletal muscle fibers have distinctive
features 194
The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules • Myofibrils •
The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum • Sarcomeres
7-4 The nervous system and skeletal muscles
communicate at neuromuscular junctions 197
The Neuromuscular Junction • The Contraction Cycle
7-5 Sarcomere shortening and muscle fiber stimulation
produce tension 200
Frequency of Muscle Fiber Stimulation • Number
of Muscle Fibers Activated • Isotonic and Isometric
Contractions • Muscle Elongation Following Contraction
7-6 ATP is the energy source for muscle
contraction 207
ATP and CP Reserves • ATP Generation • Energy
Use and the Level of Muscle Activity • Muscle
Fatigue • The Recovery Period
7-7 Muscle performance depends on muscle fiber type
and physical conditioning 210
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers • Physical Conditioning
7-8 Cardiac and smooth muscle tissues differ in structure
and function from skeletal muscle tissue 211
Cardiac Muscle Tissue • Smooth Muscle Tissue
7-9 Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal
muscles 213
Origins, Insertions, and Actions • Names of Skeletal
Muscles
7-10 Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck,
vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor 217
Muscles of the Head and Neck • Muscles of the
Spine • The Axial Muscles of the Trunk • Muscles of
the Pelvic Floor
7-11 Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders,
upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs 225
Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs • Muscles
of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs
7-12 The size and power of muscle tissue decrease with
advancing age 236
7-13 Exercise produces responses in multiple body
systems 237
SPOTLIGHTS
Events at the Neuromuscular Junction 198
The Contraction Cycle 202
CLINICAL NOTES
Interference at the NMJ and Muscular Paralysis 200
Rigor Mortis 200
Tetanus 201
Hernias 220
Intramuscular Injections 223
Chapter Review 239
8 The Nervous
System 243
An Introduction to the Nervous System 244
8-1 The nervous system has anatomical and functional
divisions 244
8-2 Neurons are specialized for intercellular
communication and are supported by cells called
neuroglia 245
Neurons • Neuroglia • Organization of Neurons in
the Nervous System
8-3 In neurons, a change in the plasma membrane’s
electrical potential may result in an action
potential (nerve impulse) 251
The Membrane Potential • Propagation of an Action
Potential
8-4 At synapses, communication takes place among
neurons or between neurons and other cells 258
Structure of a Synapse • Synaptic Function and
Neurotransmitters • Neuronal Pools
8-5 The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by three
layers of membranes called the meninges 261
The Dura Mater • The Arachnoid • The Pia Mater
8-6 The spinal cord contains gray matter surrounded
by white matter and connects to 31 pairs of spinal
nerves 262
Gross Anatomy • Sectional Anatomy
8-7 The brain has several principal structures, each
with specific functions 266
The Major Regions of the Brain • The Ventricles
of the Brain • The Cerebrum • The Diencephalon •
The Midbrain • The Pons • The Cerebellum •
The Medulla Oblongata
8-8 The PNS connects the CNS with the body’s external
and internal environments 278
The Cranial Nerves • The Spinal Nerves • Nerve
Plexuses
8-9 Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to
stimuli 283
Simple Reflexes • Complex Reflexes • Integration and
Control of Spinal Reflexes
8-10 Separate pathways carry sensory information and
motor commands 286
Sensory Pathways • Motor Pathways
8-11 The autonomic nervous system, composed of the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, is
involved in the unconscious regulation of body
functions 289
The Sympathetic Division • The Parasympathetic
Division • Relationships between the Sympathetic
and Parasympathetic Divisions
8-12 Aging produces various structural and functional
changes in the nervous system 294
8-13 The nervous system is closely integrated with other
body systems 296
SPOTLIGHTS
The Generation of an Action Potential 254
Propagation of an Action Potential 256
CLINICAL NOTES
Demyelination Disorders 251
Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages 262
Spinal Cord Injuries 264
Aphasia and Dyslexia 274
Seizures 275
Cerebral Palsy 289
Alzheimer’s Disease 296
Chapter Review 298
9 The General and Special
Senses 305
An Introduction to General and Special Senses 306
9-1 Sensory receptors connect our internal and external
environments with the nervous system 306
9-2 General sensory receptors are classified by the type
of stimulus that excites them 307
Pain • Temperature • Touch, Pressure, and
Position • Chemical Detection
9-3 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves olfactory
receptors responding to chemical stimuli 311
The Olfactory Pathways
9-4 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves taste
receptors responding to chemical stimuli 313
The Taste Pathways
9-5 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while
accessory eye structures provide protection 314
The Accessory Structures of the Eye • The Eye
9-6 Photoreceptors respond to light and change
it into electrical signals essential to visual
physiology 323
Rods and Cones • Photoreceptor Structure •
Photoreception • The Visual Pathways
9-7 Equilibrium sensations originate within the
internal ear, while hearing involves the detection
and interpretation of sound waves 328
Anatomy of the Ear • Equilibrium • Hearing
9-8 Aging is accompanied by a noticeable
decline in the
special senses 338
Smell and Aging • Taste and Aging • Vision and
Aging • Equilibrium and Aging • Hearing and Aging
SPOTLIGHT
Refractive Problems 324
CLINICAL NOTES
Cataracts 321
Visual Acuity 326
Night Blindness 327
Hearing Deficits 336
Chapter Review 339
10 The Endocrine
System 344
An Introduction to the Endocrine System 345
10-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular
communication 345
10-2 The endocrine system regulates physiological
processes through the binding of hormones to
receptors 346
The Structure of Hormones • Hormone Action • The Secretion and Distribution of Hormones •
The Control of Endocrine Activity
10-3 The bilobed pituitary gland is an endocrine organ that releases nine peptide
hormones 351
The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland • The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland
10-4 The thyroid gland synthesizes thyroid hormones that affect the rate of metabolism 356
Thyroid Follicles and Thyroid Hormones • The C Cells of the Thyroid Gland and Calcitonin
10-5 The four parathyroid glands, embedded in the posterior surfaces of the thyroid gland, secrete
parathyroid hormone to elevate blood calcium levels 360
10-6 The adrenal glands, consisting of a cortex and a medulla, cap each kidney and secrete several
hormones 360
The Adrenal Cortex • The Adrenal Medulla
10-7 The pineal gland, attached to the third ventricle, secretes melatonin 363
10-8 The endocrine pancreas produces
insulin and glucagon, hormones that regulate blood glucose levels 363
Diabetes Mellitus
10-9 Many organs have secondary endocrine
functions 365
The Intestines • The Kidneys • The Heart •
The Thymus • The Gonads • Adipose Tissue
10-10 Hormones interact to produce coordinated
physiological responses 368
Hormones and Growth • Hormones and
Stress • Hormones and Behavior • Hormones and
Aging
10-11 Extensive integration occurs between the endocrine
system and other body systems 373
SPOTLIGHT
The General Adaptation Syndrome 371
CLINICAL NOTES
Diabetes Insipidus 355
Diabetes Mellitus 366
Hormones and Athletic Performance 369
Endocrine Disorders 372
Chapter Review 375
11 The Cardiovascular System:
Blood 379
An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System 380
11-1 Blood has several important
functions and unique
physical characteristics 380
Composition of Blood • Blood Collection and Analysis
11-2 Plasma, the fluid portion of blood, contains
significant quantities of plasma proteins 381
Plasma Proteins
11-3 Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain
hemoglobin that can be recycled 384
Abundance of Red Blood Cells • Structure of
RBCs • Hemoglobin Structure and Function • RBC
Life Span and Circulation • RBC Formation
11-4 The ABO blood types and Rh system are based on antigen–antibody responses 390
Cross-Reactions in Transfusions • Testing for Blood
Compatibility
11-5 The various types of white blood cells contribute to
the body’s defenses 393
WBC Circulation and Movement • Types of
WBCs • The Differential Count and Changes in WBC
Abundance • WBC Formation
11-6 Platelets, disc-shaped structures formed from megakaryocytes, function in the clotting
process 397
11-7 Hemostasis involves vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, and blood coagulation 397
Phases of Hemostasis • The Clotting Process • Clot Retraction and Removal
SPOTLIGHT
The Composition of Whole Blood 382
CLINICAL NOTES
Abnormal Hemoglobin 386
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 392
Abnormal Hemostasis 399
Chapter Review 401
12 The Cardiovascular System:
The Heart 404
The Heart’s Role in the Cardiovascular System 405
12-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ, supplied by coronary circulation, that pumps oxygen-
poor blood to the lungs and oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the body 405
The Surface Anatomy of the Heart • The Heart Wall • Internal Anatomy and Organization
12-2 Contractile cells and the conducting system produce each heartbeat, and an electrocardiogram
records the associated electrical events 415
Contractile Cells • The Conducting System • The Electrocardiogram
12-3 Events during a complete heartbeat make up a cardiac cycle 420
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle • Heart Sounds
12-4 Heart dynamics examines the factors that affect cardiac output 422
Blood Volume Reflexes • Autonomic Innervation • Hormones
SPOTLIGHT
The Heart: Internal Anatomy and Blood Flow 411
CLINICAL NOTES
Heart Valve Disorders 412
Abnormal Conditions Affecting Cardiac Output 423
Chapter Review 425
13 The Cardiovascular System:
Blood Vessels
and Circulation 429
An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation 430
13-1 Arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins
differ in size, structure, and function 430
The Structure of Vessel Walls • Arteries •
Capillaries • Veins
13-2 Pressure and resistance determine
blood flow and
affect rates of capillary exchange 435
Factors Affecting Blood Flow • Cardiovascular
Pressures within the Systemic
Circuit
13-3 Cardiovascular regulation involves autoregulation,
neural processes, and endocrine responses 441
Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues • Neural
Control of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow • Hormones
and Cardiovascular Regulation
13-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological
stress 447
Exercise and the Cardiovascular System • The
Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhage
13-5 The pulmonary and systemic circuits
of the
cardiovascular system exhibit three general
functional patterns 449
13-6 In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated
blood
enters the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood
leaves the lungs in veins 450
13-7 The systemic circuit carries oxygenated
blood from
the left ventricle to tissues other than the lungs’
exchange surfaces, and returns deoxygenated blood
to the right atrium 451
Systemic Arteries • Systemic Veins
13-8 Modifications of fetal and maternal
cardiovascular
systems promote the exchange of materials until
birth 462
Placental Blood Supply • Fetal Circulation in the Heart
and Great Vessels • Circulatory Changes at Birth
13-9 Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood
vessels 463
13-10 The cardiovascular system is both structurally and
functionally linked to all other systems 464
SPOTLIGHT
Major Vessels of the Systemic Circuit 452
CLINICAL NOTES
Arteriosclerosis 433
Capillary Dynamics and Blood Volume and Pressure 439
Checking the Pulse and Blood Pressure 440
Exercise, Cardiovascular Fitness, and Health 447
Shock 448
Chapter Review 466
14 The Lymphatic System
and Immunity 471
An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and
Immunity 472
14-1 Anatomical barriers and defense processes make
up nonspecific defense, and lymphocytes provide
specific defense 472
14-2 Lymphatic vessels, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues, and lymphoid organs function in body
defenses 473
Functions of the Lymphatic System • Lymphatic Vessels • Lymphocytes • Lymphoid Tissues •
Lymphoid Organs
14-3 Innate (nonspecific) defenses respond in a characteristic way regardless of the potential threat
481
Physical Barriers • Phagocytes • Immune
Surveillance • Interferons • The Complement
System • Inflammation • Fever
14-4 Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to specific
threats and are either cell mediated or antibody
mediated 485
Forms of Immunity • An Overview of Adaptive Immunity
14-5 T cells play a role in starting and controlling adaptive immunity 487
Antigen Presentation • T Cell Activation
14-6 B cells respond to antigens by producing specific antibodies 489
B Cell Sensitization and Activation • Antibody
Structure • Antibody Function • Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure • Summary
of the Immune Response • Hormones of the
Immune System
14-7 Abnormal immune responses result in immune disorders 496
Autoimmune Disorders • Immunodeficiency
Diseases • Allergies
14-8 The immune response diminishes as we age 497
14-9 For all body systems, the lymphatic system provides defenses against infection and returns
tissue fluid to the circulation 498
SPOTLIGHT
Origin and Distribution of Lymphocytes 477
CLINICAL NOTES
“Swollen Glands” 479
Injury to the Spleen 481
AIDS 493
Stress and the Immune Response 497
Manipulating the Immune Response 498
Chapter Review 500
15 The Respiratory System 505
An Introduction to the Respiratory System 506
15-1 The respiratory system, composed of air-conducting and respiratory portions, has several basic
functions 506
Functions of the Respiratory System • Structures of the Respiratory System
15-2 The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles conduct air into the lungs
508
The Nose • The Pharynx • The Larynx • The Trachea • The Bronchi
15-3 The smallest bronchioles and the alveoli within the lungs make up the respiratory portion of the
respiratory tract 514
The Bronchioles • The Blood Air Barrier • The Lungs • The Pleural Cavities
15-4 External respiration and internal respiration allow gas exchange within the body 518
15-5 Pulmonary ventilation—the exchange of air between the atmosphere and the lungs—involves
pressure changes and muscle movement 519
Pressure and Airflow to the Lungs • Compliance • Modes of Breathing • Lung Volumes and Capacities
15-6 Gas exchange depends on the partial pressures of gases and the diffusion
of molecules 522
Mixed Gases and Partial Pressures • Partial Pressures in the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits
15-7 In gas transport, most oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin, whereas carbon dioxide is
transported in three ways 524
Oxygen Transport • Carbon Dioxide Transport
15-8 Neurons in the medulla oblongata and pons, along with respiratory reflexes, control respiration
527
The Local Control of Respiration • Control by the Respiratory Centers of the Brain • The Reflex
Control of Respiration • Control by Higher Centers •
Respiratory Changes at Birth
15-9 Respiratory performance declines with age 532
15-10 The respiratory system provides oxygen to, and removes carbon dioxide from, other organ
systems 532
SPOTLIGHTS
Pulmonary Ventilation 520
The Control of Respiration 530
CLINICAL NOTES
Cystic Fibrosis 509
Tracheal Blockage 512
Pneumonia 516
Tuberculosis 517
Decompression Sickness 523
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 525
Emphysema and Lung Cancer 531
Chapter Review 534
16 The Digestive
System 538
An Introduction to the Digestive System 539
16-1 The digestive system—the digestive tract and accessory organs—performs various food-
processing functions 539
Functions of the Digestive System • Histological Organization of the Digestive Tract • The Movement
of Digestive Materials
16-2 The oral cavity contains the tongue, salivary glands, and teeth, each with specific functions 543
The Tongue • Salivary Glands • Teeth
16-3 The pharynx is a passageway between the oral cavity and the esophagus 546
The Pharynx • The Esophagus • Swallowing
16-4 The J-shaped stomach receives food from the esophagus and aids in chemical and mechanical
digestion 547
The Gastric Wall • The Regulation of Gastric Activity • Digestion in the Stomach
16-5 The small intestine chemically digests and absorbs nutrients 552
The Intestinal Wall • Intestinal Movements • Intestinal Secretions • Intestinal Hormones •
Digestion in the Small Intestine
16-6 The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are accessory
organs that assist with chemical digestion in the
small intestine 556
The Pancreas • The Liver • The Gallbladder
16-7 The large intestine is divided into three parts with regional specialization 562
The Cecum • The Colon • The Rectum • The Functions of the Large Intestine
16-8 Chemical digestion is the alteration of food that allows the absorption and use of nutrients 566
The Processing and Absorption of Nutrients • Water and Electrolyte Absorption • Absorption of
Vitamins
16-9 Many age-related changes affect digestion and absorption 569
16-10 The digestive system is extensively integrated with other body systems 570
SPOTLIGHTS
Regulation of Gastric Activity 550
Chemical Events in Digestion 567
CLINICAL NOTES
Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers 551
Stomach Cancer 551
Vomiting 555
Pancreatitis 558
Liver Disease 561
Colorectal Cancer 564
Diverticulosis 565
Diarrhea and Constipation 565
Lactose Intolerance 568
Chapter Review 572
17 Metabolism and
Energetics 577
An Introduction to Nutrition and Metabolism 578
17-1 Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions in the body, and energetics refers to the flow
and transformation of energy 578
17-2 Carbohydrate metabolism involves glycolysis, ATP
production, and gluconeogenesis 580
Glycolysis • Energy Production Within Mitochondria • Energy Yield of Glycolysis and Cellular
Respiration • Gluconeogenesis (Glucose Synthesis) • Alternate Catabolic Pathways
17-3 Lipid metabolism involves lipolysis, beta-oxidation, and the transport and distribution of lipids
as lipoproteins and free fatty acids 587
Lipid Catabolism • Lipids and Energy Production • Lipid Synthesis • Lipid Transport and Distribution
17-4 Protein catabolism involves transamination and deamination, and protein synthesis involves
amination and transamination 589
Amino Acid Catabolism • Amino Acids and Protein Synthesis
17-5 Nucleic acid catabolism involves RNA, but not DNA 591
RNA Catabolism • Nucleic Acid Synthesis
17-6 Adequate nutrition is necessary to prevent deficiency disorders and maintain homeostasis 592
Food Groups and a Balanced Diet • Minerals, Vitamins, and Water • Diet and Disease
17-7 Metabolic rate is the average caloric expenditure,
and thermoregulation involves balancing heatproducing and heat-losing processes 596
The Energy Content of Food • Energy Expenditure: Metabolic Rate • Thermoregulation
17-8 Caloric needs decline with advancing age 599
SPOTLIGHT
Electron Transport Chain and ATP Formation
583
CLINICAL NOTES
Carbohydrate Loading 585
Dietary Fats and Cholesterol 587
Ketoacidosis 590
Chapter Review 600
18 The Urinary
System 604
An Introduction to the Urinary System 605
18-1 The urinary system—made up of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra—has three
major functions 605
18-2 The kidneys are highly vascular organs containing functional units called nephrons, which
perform filtration, reabsorption, and secretion 606
Superficial and Sectional Anatomy of the Kidneys • The Blood Supply to the Kidneys • The Nephron
18-3 Different portions of the nephron form urine by filtration, reabsorption, and secretion 613
Nephron Processes • Filtration at the Glomerulus • Reabsorption and Secretion along the Renal
Tubule •Normal Urine
18-4 Normal kidney function depends on a stable GFR 620
The Local Regulation of Kidney Function • The
Hormonal Control of Kidney Function
18-5 Urine is transported by the ureters, stored in the bladder, and eliminated through the urethra,
aided by urinary
reflexes 623
The Ureters • The Urinary Bladder • The Urethra • The Control of Urination
18-6 Fluid balance, electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance are interrelated and essential to
homeostasis 626
The ECF and the ICF
18-7 Blood pressure and osmosis are involved in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance 628
Fluid Balance • Electrolyte Balance
18-8 In acid-base balance, regulation of hydrogen ions in body fluids involves buffer systems and
compensation by respiratory and renal processes 630
Acids in the Body • Buffers and Buffer Systems • Maintaining Acid-Base Balance • Acid-Base
Disorders
18-9 Age-related changes affect kidney function and the control of urination 634
18-10 The urinary system is one of several body systems involved in waste excretion 635
SPOTLIGHT
A Summary of Kidney Function 618
CLINICAL NOTES
Kidney Failure 622
Urinary Tract Infections 624
Incontinence 625
Disturbances of Acid-Base Balance 633
Chapter Review 637
19 The Reproductive
System 642
An Introduction to the Reproductive System 643
19-1 Basic reproductive system structures are gonads, ducts, accessory glands and organs, and
external genitalia 643
19-2 Sperm formation (spermatogenesis) occurs in the testes, and hormones from the
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes control male reproductive functions 644
The Testes • Spermatogenesis • The Male Reproductive
Tract • The Accessory Glands • The External Genitalia • Hormones and Male Reproductive Function
19-3 Ovum production (oogenesis) occurs in the ovaries, and hormones from the pituitary gland and
ovaries control female reproductive functions 653
The Ovaries • The Uterine Tubes • The Uterus • The
Vagina • The External Genitalia • The Mammary
Glands • Hormones and the Female Reproductive Cycle
19-4 The autonomic nervous system influences male and female sexual function 665
Male Sexual Function • Female Sexual Function
19-5 With age, decreasing levels of reproductive hormones cause functional changes 666
Menopause • The Male Climacteric
19-6 The reproductive system secretes hormones affecting
growth and metabolism of all body systems 667
SPOTLIGHTS
Regulation of Male Reproduction 652
Regulation of Female Reproduction 662
CLINICAL NOTES
Cryptorchidism 646
Prostatitis 650
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) 658
Amenorrhea 659
Breast Cancer 661
Infertility 664
Sexually Transmitted Diseases 665
Birth Control Strategies 668
Chapter Review 671
20 Development and Inheritance 675
An Introduction to Development and Inheritance 676
20-1 Development is a continuous process that occurs from fertilization to maturity 676
20-2 Fertilization—the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a sperm—forms a zygote 677
An Overview of Fertilization • Ovulation and Oocyte Activation
20-3 Gestation consists of three stages of prenatal development: the first, second, and third
trimesters 679
20-4 Critical events of the first trimester are cleavage, implantation, placentation, and embryogenesis
679
Cleavage and Blastocyst Formation • Implantation • Placentation • Embryogenesis
20-5 During the second and third trimesters, maternal organ systems support the developing fetus,
and the uterus undergoes structural and functional changes 687
The Effects of Pregnancy on Maternal Systems • Structural and Functional Changes in the Uterus
20-6 Labor consists of the dilation, expulsion, and placental stages 694
The Stages of Labor • Premature Labor • Multiple Births
20-7 Postnatal stages are the neonatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and maturity,
followed by senescence 696
The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood • Adolescence and Maturity
20-8 Genes and chromosomes determine patterns of inheritance 698
Patterns of Inheritance • The Human Genome
SPOTLIGHT
Extra-Embryonic Membranes and Placenta
Formation 684
CLINICAL NOTES
Abortion 698
Chromosomal Abnormalities and Genetic
Analysis 704
Chapter Review 705
Answers Answers to Checkpoints and Review
Questions ANS-1
Appendix Normal Physiological Values APP-1
Glossary/Index G-1