General Chemistry, Eleventh Edition
By Darrell D. Ebbing and Steven D. Gammon
Contents:
Essays xv
Preface xvi
A Note to Students xx
About the Authors xxi
1 Chemistry and Measurement 1
An Introduction to Chemistry 2
1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse 3
1.2 Experiment and Explanation 4
A Chemist Looks at The Birth of the Post-it Note® 5
1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass 6
1.4 Matter: Physical State and Chemical Composition 8
Instrumental Methods Separation of Mixtures by
Chromatography 13
Physical Measurements 15
1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures 15
1.6 SI Units 18
1.7 Derived Units 21
1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method) 25
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 31
Atomic Theory and Atomic Structure 32
2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter 33
2.2 The Structure of the Atom 35
2.3 Nuclear Structure; Isotopes 38
2.4 Atomic Weights 40
2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements 43
A Chemist Looks at The Discovery of New Elements 45
Chemical Substances: Formulas and Names 46
2.6 Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances 46
2.7 Organic Compounds 51
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds 52
Chemical Reactions: Equations 63
2.9 Writing Chemical Equations 63
2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations 64
3 Calculations with Chemical Formulas
and Equations 70
Mass and Moles of Substance 71
3.1 Molecular Weight and Formula Weight 71
3.2 The Mole Concept 73
Determining Chemical Formulas 78
3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula 78
3.4 Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon,
Hydrogen, and Oxygen 80
3.5 Determining Formulas 82
Instrumental Methods Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula 83
Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions 88
3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation 88
3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction 89
3.8 Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields 93
4 Chemical Reactions 102
Ions in Aqueous Solution 103
4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules 103
4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations 108
Types of Chemical Reactions 111
4.3 Precipitation Reactions 111
4.4 Acid–Base Reactions 114
4.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 122
4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations 129
Working with Solutions 131
4.7 Molar Concentration 131
4.8 Diluting Solutions 133
Quantitative Analysis 135
4.9 Gravimetric Analysis 135
4.10 Volumetric Analysis 137
5 The Gaseous State 143
Gas Laws 144
5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement 144
5.2 Empirical Gas Laws 146
A Chemist Looks at Nitrogen Monoxide Gas and Biological Signaling 154
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 155
5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes 160
5.5 Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures 162
Kinetic-Molecular Theory 166
5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas 167
5.7 Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion 170
5.8 Real Gases 175
A Chemist Looks at Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect 178
6 Thermochemistry 182
Understanding Heats of Reaction 183
6.1 Energy and Its Units 184
6.2 First Law of Thermodynamics; Work and Heat 186
6.3 Heat of Reaction; Enthalpy of Reaction 190
6.4 Thermochemical Equations 194
6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction 196
A Chemist Looks at Lucifers and Other Matches 197
6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction 198
Using Heats of Reaction 202
6.7 Hess’s Law 202
6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 206
6.9 Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels 210
7 Quantum Theory of the Atom 215
Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory 217
7.1 The Wave Nature of Light 217
7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons 219
7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 222
A Chemist Looks at Lasers and CD and DVD Players 226
Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Numbers 228
7.4 Quantum Mechanics 228
7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals 231
Instrumental Methods Scanning Tunneling Microscopy 232
8 Electron Configurations and Periodicity 239
Electronic Structure of Atoms 240
8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 240
Instrumental Methods Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 242
8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table 245
8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table 249
Instrumental Methods X Rays, Atomic Numbers, and Orbital Structure (Photoelectron
Spectroscopy) 250
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule 253
A Chemist Looks at Levitating Frogs and People 256
Periodicity of the Elements 256
8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table 256
8.6 Some Periodic Properties 258
8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements 265
9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding 269
Ionic Bonds 270
9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds 270
A Chemist Looks at Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry 275
9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions 276
9.3 Ionic Radii 279
Covalent Bonds 281
9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds 282
9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity 284
A Chemist Looks at Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin 285
9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas 287
9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance 291
9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 293
9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas 296
9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order 299
9.11 Bond Enthalpy 301
Instrumental Methods Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds 305
10 Molecular Geometry and
Chemical Bonding Theory 309
Molecular Geometry and Directional Bonding 311
10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model 311
A Chemist Looks at Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules 320
10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry 321
10.3 Valence Bond Theory 325
10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding 331
Molecular Orbital Theory 336
10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 336
10.6 Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the
Second-Period Elements 339
10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding 342
A Chemist Looks at Human Vision 344
A Chemist Looks at Stratospheric Ozone (An Absorber of Ultraviolet Rays) 345
11 States of Matter; Liquids
and Solids 349
11.1 Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids 350
Changes of State 351
11.2 Phase Transitions 351
11.3 Phase Diagrams 361
Liquid State 363
11.4 Properties of Liquids; Surface Tension and Viscosity 363
A Chemist Looks at Removing Caffeine from Coffee 364
11.5 Intermolecular Forces; Explaining Liquid Properties 367
A Chemist Looks at Gecko Toes, Sticky But Not Tacky 375
Solid State 376
11.6 Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units 376
11.7 Crystalline Solids; Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 380
A Chemist Looks at Liquid-Crystal Displays 384
11.8 Structures of Some Crystalline Solids 385
11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions 390
11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction 393
Instrumental Methods Automated X-Ray Diffractometry 395
A Chemist Looks at Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth) 396
12 Solutions 401
Solution Formation 402
12.1 Types of Solutions 402
12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process 404
A Chemist Looks at Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia 409
12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility 410
Colligative Properties 413
12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration 413
12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution 420
12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 423
12.7 Osmosis 427
12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions 431
Colloid Formation 432
12.9 Colloids 432
A Chemist Looks at The World’s Smallest Test Tubes 437
13 Rates of Reaction 441
Reaction Rates 442
13.1 Definition of Reaction Rate 443
13.2 Experimental Determination of Rate 447
13.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration 448
13.4 Change of Concentration with Time 454
13.5 Temperature and Rate; Collision and Transition-State Theories 462
13.6 Arrhenius Equation 466
Reaction Mechanisms 468
13.7 Elementary Reactions 468
13.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism 472
13.9 Catalysis 478
A Chemist Looks at Seeing Molecules React 482
14 Chemical Equilibrium 486
Describing Chemical Equilibrium 487
14.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium 487
14.2 The Equilibrium Constant 490
14.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria; Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria 497
A Chemist Looks at Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots 498
Using the Equilibrium Constant 500
14.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant 500
14.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction 501
14.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations 503
Changing the Reaction Conditions; Le Châtelier’s Principle 507
14.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants 508
14.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature 510
14.9 Effect of a Catalyst 516
15 Acids and Bases 520
Acid–Base Concepts 521
15.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases 521
15.2 Brønsted–Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases 522
15.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 525
A Chemist Looks at Taking Your Medicine 527
Acid and Base Strengths 528
15.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases 528
15.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength 531
Autoionization of Water and pH 533
15.6 Autoionization of Water 534
15.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base 534
15.8 The pH of a Solution 537
A Chemist Looks at Unclogging the Sink and Other Chores 541
16 Acid–Base Equilibria 543
Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base 544
16.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria 544
16.2 Polyprotic Acids 551
A Chemist Looks at Acid Rain 554
16.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria 555
16.4 Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions 558
Solutions of a Weak Acid or Base with Another Solute 563
16.5 Common-Ion Effect 563
16.6 Buffers 566
16.7 Acid–Base Titration Curves 573
17 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 582
Solubility Equilibria 583
17.1 The Solubility Product Constant 583
17.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect 588
17.3 Precipitation Calculations 590
17.4 Effect of pH on Solubility 594
A Chemist Looks at Limestone Caves 596
Complex-Ion Equilibria 597
17.5 Complex-Ion Formation 597
17.6 Complex Ions and Solubility 600
An Application of Solubility Equilibria 602
17.7 Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions 602
18 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium 606
18.1 First Law of Thermodynamics: A Review 607
Spontaneous Processes and Entropy 608
18.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 609
18.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics 615
Free-Energy Concept 618
18.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity 619
18.5 Interpretation of Free Energy 623
A Chemist Looks at Coupling of Reactions 624
Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants 626
18.6 Relating ΔG 8 to the Equilibrium Constant 626
18.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature 630
19 Electrochemistry 636
Half-Reactions 637
19.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions 637
Voltaic Cells 642
19.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells 642
19.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells 645
19.4 Cell Potential 647
19.5 Standard Cell Potentials and Standard Electrode Potentials 649
19.6 Equilibrium Constants from Cell Potentials 657
19.7 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration 660
19.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells 663
A Chemist Looks at Lithium-Ion Batteries 666
Electrolytic Cells 668
19.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts 668
19.10 Aqueous Electrolysis 670
19.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis 675
20 Nuclear Chemistry 680
Radioactivity and Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 681
20.1 Radioactivity 681
A Chemist Looks at Magic Numbers 687
20.2 Nuclear Bombardment Reactions 692
20.3 Radiations and Matter: Detection and Biological Effects 696
20.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay 698
20.5 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes 705
A Chemist Looks at Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 709
Energy of Nuclear Reactions 710
20.6 Mass–Energy Calculations 710
20.7 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 714
21 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements 720
21.1 General Observations About the Main-Group Elements 721
Chemistry of the Main-Group Metals 723
21.2 Metals: Characteristics and Production 724
21.3 Bonding in Metals 728
21.4 Group 1A: The Alkali Metals 730
A Chemist Looks at Superconductivity 731
21.5 Group 2A: The Alkaline Earth Metals 737
21.6 Group 3A and Group 4A Metals 742
Chemistry of the Nonmetals 747
21.7 Hydrogen 747
21.8 Group 4A: The Carbon Family 750
21.9 Group 5A: Nitrogen and the Phosphorus Family 755
A Chemist Looks at Buckminsterfullerene—
A Molecular Form of Carbon 756
21.10 Group 6A: Oxygen and the Sulfur Family 763
21.11 Group 7A: The Halogens 768
21.12 Group 8A: The Noble Gases 771
22 The Transition Elements and
Coordination Compounds 777
Properties of the Transition Elements 778
22.1 Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements 778
22.2 The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements 782
Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds 785
22.3 Formation and Structure of Complexes 785
22.4 Naming Coordination Compounds 789
A Chemist Looks at Salad Dressing and
Chelate Stability 790
22.5 Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 793
22.6 Valence Bond Theory of Complexes 800
22.7 Crystal Field Theory 801
A Chemist Looks at The Cooperative Release of Oxygen
from Oxyhemoglobin 808
23 Organic Chemistry 811
23.1 The Bonding of Carbon 812
Hydrocarbons 813
23.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes 813
23.3 Alkenes and Alkynes 820
23.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 824
23.5 Naming Hydrocarbons 827
Derivatives of Hydrocarbons 834
23.6 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen 834
23.7 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 838
24 Polymer Materials: Synthetic and
Biological 841
Synthetic Polymers 842
24.1 Synthesis of Organic Polymers 843
A Chemist Looks at The Discovery of Nylon 845
24.2 Electrically Conducting Polymers 847
Biological Polymers 849
24.3 Proteins 849
24.4 Nucleic Acids 854
A Chemist Looks at Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic Force Microscopy 862
Appendixes A-1
- Mathematical Skills A-1
- Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-7
- Thermodynamic Quantities for Substances and Ions at 25°C A-7
- Electron Configurations of Atoms in the Ground State A-12
- Acid-Ionization Constants at 25°C A-13
- Base-Ionization Constants at 25°C A-14
- Solubility Product Constants at 25°C A-15
- Formation Constants of Complex Ions at 25°C A-16
- Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25°C A-16
Answers to Exercises A-18
Answers to Concept Checks A-22
Answer Section Selected Odd Problems A-25
Glossary A-41
Index A-53