Investigating Oceanography, 4th Edition PDF by Keith A Sverdrup and Raphael M Kudela

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Investigating Oceanography, Fourth Edition

By Keith A. Sverdrup and Raphael M. Kudela

Investigating Oceanography, 4th Edition

Contents:

Preface xi

Prologue

The History of

Oceanography 3

P.1 The Early Times 4

P.2 The Middle Ages 7

P.3 Voyages of Discovery 8

P.4 The Importance of Charts

and Navigational Information 10

P.5 Ocean Science Begins 12

P.6 Early Expeditions of the Nineteenth

and Twentieth Centuries 14

The Challenger Expedition 14

The Voyage of the Fram 15

The Meteor Expedition 15

P.7 Ocean Science in Modern Times 15

Establishing Oceanographic Institutions 15

Large-Scale, Direct Exploration of the Oceans 16

Diving in “FLIP,” the Floating Instrument Platform 17

Diving in Planning and Executing a Successful

Oceanographic Expedition 21

P.8 Oceanography from Space 23

The View from Space 23

Oceanographic Applications for Geology 25

Oceanographic Applications for Physics 27

Oceanographic Applications for Chemistry and Biology 28

Our Wired World 29

A Glimpse of Our Future 30

Summary 32

C H A P T E R 1

The Water Planet 35

1.1 Cosmic Beginnings 36

Origin of the Universe 36

Origin of Our Solar System 37

Extraterrestrial Oceans 38

Diving in Origin of the Oceans 40

Early Planet Earth 41

1.2 Earth’s Age and Time 41

Earth’s Age 41

Geologic Time 42

Natural Time Periods 44

1.3 Earth’s Shape 45

Keith A. Sverdrup

1.4 Where on Earth Are You? 46

Latitude and Longitude 46

Measuring Latitude 48

Longitude and Time 48

1.5 Modern Navigation 49

1.6 Earth Is a Water Planet 50

Water on Earth’s Surface 50

Hydrologic Cycle 50

Reservoirs and Residence Time 51

Distribution of Land and Water 52

One World Ocean Divided into Five 52

Hypsographic Curve 55

Summary 56

Key Terms 56

Study Problems 57

C H A P T E R 2

Earth Structure

and Plate Tectonics 59

2.1 Earth’s Interior 60

Earthquake Waves Reveal Earth’s

Layers 60

Model 1: Layers with

Different Mineral and Chemical

Compositions 61

Model 2: Layers with Different

Strengths and Physical Properties 63

Isostasy 64

2.2 History of a Theory: Continental Drift 65

2.3 Evidence for a New Theory: Seafloor Spreading 67

Evidence for Crustal Motion 68

2.4 Plate Tectonics 74

Plates and Their Boundaries 75

Divergent Boundaries 75

Transform Boundaries 77

Convergent Boundaries 78

Continental Margins 81

2.5 Motion of the Plates 81

Mechanisms of Motion 81

Rates of Motion 82

Hotspots 84

2.6 History of the Continents 85

The Breakup of Pangaea 85

Before Pangaea 86

Summary 87

Key Terms 88

Study Problems 88

C H A P T E R 3

The Sea Floor

and Its Sediments 91

3.1 Measuring the Depths 92

3.2 Seafloor Provinces 95

Continental Margins and

Submarine Canyons 96

Abyssal Plains 97

Ridges, Rises, and Trenches 98

Diving in Exploring the Mariana Trench 100

3.3 Sediments 102

Why Study Sediments? 102

Classification Methods 102

Particle Size 102

Location and Rates of Deposition 103

Source and Chemistry 104

Patterns of Deposit on the Sea Floor 108

Formation of Rock 111

Sampling Methods 111

Sediments as Historical Records 112

3.4 Seabed Resources 114

Sand and Gravel 114

Phosphorite 115

Oil and Gas 115

Gas Hydrates 115

Manganese Nodules 116

Sulfide Mineral Deposits 117

Summary 117

Key Terms 118

Study Problems 119

C H A P T E R 4

The Physical Properties

of Water 121

4.1 The Water Molecule 122

4.2 Temperature and Heat 122

4.3 Changes of State 125

4.4 Specific Heat 126

4.5 Cohesion, Surface Tension,

and Viscosity 127

4.6 Density 127

The Effect of Pressure 128

The Effect of Temperature 128

The Effect of Salt 129

4.7 Transmission of Energy 130

Heat 130

Light 131

Sound 134

Diving in The Acoustic World of Marine Organisms and the

Problem of Anthropogenic Noise 137

Summary 139

Key Terms 139

Study Problems 139

Keith A. Sverdrup

Keith A. Sverdrup

C H A P T E R 5

The Chemistry

of Seawater 141

5.1 Salts 142

Dissolving Ability of Water 142

Units of Concentration 142

Ocean Salinities 143

Dissolved Salts 144

Sources of Salt 144

Regulating the Salt Balance 145

Residence Time 147

Constant Proportions 148

Determining Salinity 148

5.2 Gases 149

Distribution with Depth 149

The Carbon Dioxide Cycle 150

The Oxygen Balance 150

Measuring the Gases 150

5.3 Carbon Dioxide and the Ocean 151

The pH of Seawater 151

The Marine Carbonate System and Buffering pH 152

Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide and Ocean Acidification 153

5.4 Nutrients and Organics 154

Nutrients 154

Organics 155

5.5 Practical Considerations: Salt and Water 155

Chemical Resources 155

Desalination 155

Summary 157

Key Terms 158

Study Problems 158

C H A P T E R 6

The Atmosphere

and the Oceans 161

6.1 Heating and Cooling

Earth’s Surface 162

Distribution of Solar Radiation 162

Heat Budget 163

Annual Cycles of Solar Radiation 164

Specific Heat and Heat Capacity 166

Diving in Oceanography of Tidewater Glacier Margins:

Undergraduate Research on Svalbard 168

6.2 Sea Ice and Icebergs 170

Sea Ice 170

Icebergs 170

6.3 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 171

Structure of the Atmosphere 171

Composition of Air 172

Carbon Dioxide and the Greenhouse Effect 172

Ozone 173

Diving in Clouds and Climate 174

6.4 The Atmosphere in Motion 176

Atmospheric Pressure 176

Winds on a Nonrotating Earth 176

Palo_ok/Shutterstock

Science Photo Libra/Image Source

The Effects of Rotation 177

Wind Bands 179

6.5 Modifying the Wind Bands 181

Seasonal Changes 181

The Monsoon Effect 181

The Topographic Effect 183

6.6 Hurricanes and Coastal Flooding 185

Hurricanes 185

Coastal Flooding 185

6.7 El Niño–Southern Oscillation 191

Summary 194

Key Terms 195

Study Problems 195

C H A P T E R 7

Ocean Structure

and Circulation 197

7.1 Ocean Structure 198

Variation of Temperature with

Depth 198

Variation of Salinity with Depth 199

Variation of Density with Depth 200

7.2 Thermohaline Circulation and Water Masses 202

Thermohaline Circulation 202

Water Masses 203

7.3 The Layered Oceans 205

The Atlantic Ocean 205

The Pacific Ocean 206

The Indian Ocean 206

The Arctic Ocean 206

Internal Mixing 207

7.4 What Drives the Surface Currents? 207

The Ekman Spiral and Ekman Transport 208

Ocean Gyres 208

Geostrophic Flow 208

7.5 Ocean Surface Currents 209

Pacific Ocean Currents 209

Atlantic Ocean Currents 210

Indian Ocean Currents 210

Arctic Ocean Currents 210

Antarctic Currents 212

The Indonesian Throughflow 212

7.6 Current Characteristics 213

Current Speed 213

Current Volume Transport 213

Western Intensification 213

7.7 Eddies 215

7.8 Convergence and Divergence 216

Langmuir Cells 216

Permanent Zones 217

Seasonal Zones 218

7.9 Global Meridional Overturning Circulation 220

7.10 Changing Circulation Patterns 221

North Pacific Oscillations 221

North Atlantic Oscillations 221

7.11 Measuring the Currents 222

Diving in Ocean Drifters 223

Summary 226

Geophysical Fluid Dynamics

Laboratory

Key Terms 227

Study Problems 227

C H A P T E R 8

The Waves 229

8.1 How a Wave Begins 230

Forces Influencing Waves 230

Two Types of Wind-Generated

Waves 231

8.2 Anatomy of a Wave 232

8.3 Wave Speed 232

8.4 Deep-Water Waves in Detail 233

Deep-Water Wave Motion 233

Deep-Water Wave Speed 234

Storm Centers 234

Dispersion 234

Group Speed 235

Wave Interaction 235

Wave Height 236

Rogue Waves 238

Wave Energy 238

Wave Steepness 239

Universal Sea State Code 239

8.5 Shallow-Water Waves in Detail 239

Shallow-Water Wave Motion 239

Shallow-Water Wave Speed 240

Refraction 241

Reflection 242

Diffraction 242

8.6 The Surf Zone 243

Breakers 243

Water Transport and Rip Currents 244

Energy Release 245

8.7 Tsunami 246

Diving in The March 11, 2011, Japanese Tsunami 248

8.8 Internal Waves 251

8.9 Standing Waves 252

8.10 Practical Considerations: Energy from Waves 255

Summary 257

Key Terms 257

Study Problems 257

C H A P T E R 9

The Tides 259

9.1 Tide Patterns 260

9.2 Tide Levels 260

9.3 Tidal Currents 261

9.4 Modeling the Tides 262

The Earth-Moon System 262

Earth and Moon Rotation 263

The Sun Tide 264

Spring Tides and Neap Tides 264

Declinational Tides 265

Elliptical Orbits 267

9.5 Real Tides in Real Ocean Basins 267

The Tide Wave 267

Progressive Wave Tides 268

Standing Wave Tides 268

Tide Waves in Narrow Basins 270

9.6 Tidal Bores 270

9.7 Predicting Tides and Tidal Currents 271

Diving in Measuring Tides from Space 272

Tide Tables 273

Tidal Current Tables 273

9.8 Practical Considerations: Energy from Tides 274

Summary 276

Key Terms 277

Study Problems 277

C H A P T E R 10

Coasts, Beaches,

and Estuaries 279

10.1 Major Coastal Zones 280

10.2 Types of Coasts 280

Primary Coasts 283

Secondary Coasts 284

10.3 Anatomy of a Beach 286

10.4 Beach Dynamics 288

Natural Processes 288

Coastal Circulation 290

10.5 Beach Types 291

10.6 Modifying Beaches 292

Coastal Structures 292

The Santa Barbara Story 293

The History of Ediz Hook 294

10.7 Estuaries 295

Types of Estuaries 296

Circulation Patterns 297

Temperate-Zone Estuaries 298

10.8 Regions of High Evaporation 298

10.9 Flushing Time 299

Summary 300

Diving in Public Aquariums in Ocean

Research and Education 301

Key Terms 307

Study Problems 307

C H A P T E R 11

The Living Ocean 309

11.1 Evolution in the Marine

Environment 310

11.2 Marine Biodiversity 311

Diving in Assessing Marine

Biodiversity with Environmental

DNA 312

11.3 The Flow of Energy 314

11.4 Groups of Organisms 315

11.5 Environmental Zones 316

Dr. Matthew Fouse

Reinhard Dirscherl/agefotostock

Pelagic 316

Benthic 316

11.6 Facts of Life in the Ocean 317

Light 317

Temperature 319

Salinity 319

Diving in Bioluminescence in the Sea 320

Pressure 322

Buoyancy 323

Inorganic Nutrients 323

Dissolved Gases 324

pH 324

11.7 The Importance of Size 325

Summary 327

Key Terms 327

Study Problems 328

C H A P T E R 12

The Plankton, Productivity,

and Food Webs 331

12.1 The Marine

Photoautotrophs 332

12.2 The Plankton 333

12.3 Bacterioplankton and

Viruses 334

12.4 Phytoplankton 335

Diatoms 336

Dinoflagellates 337

Coccolithophorids 338

Cyanobacteria 339

Prasinophytes 340

Harmful Algal Blooms 340

12.5 Zooplankton 342

Diving in Harmful Algal Bloom and Hypoxia Research

and Control Act 343

12.6 Primary Production 350

12.7 Measuring Primary Productivity 352

12.8 Phytoplankton Biomass 353

12.9 Controls on Productivity and Biomass 355

12.10 Food Webs and the Biological Pump 357

Food Webs 357

Biological Pump 359

Marine Bacteria and Nutrients 359

12.11 Global Patterns of Productivity 360

Summary 363

Key Terms 364

Study Problems 364

C H A P T E R 13

The Nekton: Swimmers

of the Sea 367

13.1 The Nekton Defined 368

13.2 Swimming Marine Invertebrates 369

13.3 Marine Reptiles 370

Sea Snakes 370

Sea Turtles 370

13.4 Marine Birds 372

13.5 Fish 374

Jawless Fish 374

Sharks, Skates, and Rays 374

Bony Fish 377

Deep-Sea Species of Bony Fish 378

13.6 Marine Mammals 380

Sea Otters 381

Walrus 381

Polar Bears 382

Seals and Sea Lions 384

Sea Cows 384

Whales 385

Whaling 387

Marine Mammal Protection Act 390

Communication 391

Diving in Whale Falls 392

Summary 394

Key Terms 394

Study Problems 395

C H A P T E R 14

The Benthos: Living

on the Sea Floor 397

14.1 The Benthic Environment 398

14.2 Seaweeds and Marine

Plants 401

General Characteristics

of Benthic Algae 401

Kinds of Seaweeds 403

Marine Plant Communities 404

14.3 Organisms of the Rocky Shore 404

Tide Pools 409

Submerged Rocky Bottoms 409

14.4 Organisms of the Soft Substrates 410

14.5 Organisms of the Deep-Sea Floor 413

14.6 Coral Reefs 415

Tropical Corals 415

Tropical Coral Reefs 416

Coral Bleaching 418

Predation and Disease 418

Human Activities 418

Diving in Undersea Ultraviolet Radiation 419

Deep-Water Corals 420

14.7 Deep-Ocean Chemosynthetic Communities 421

Hot Vents 421

Cold Seeps 422

14.8 Symbiosis 422

Summary 424

Key Terms 424

Study Problems 425

David Nunuk/All Canada Photos/

Getty Images

C H A P T E R 15

Environmental Issues 427

15.1 Human Impacts Through

Time 428

15.2 Marine Pollution 428

Solid Waste Dumping 429

Sewage Effluent 430

Toxicants 430

15.3 Plastic Trash 433

15.4 Eutrophication and Hypoxia 436

15.5 Oil Spills 438

Diving in Impacts from the Deepwater Horizon Spill 440

15.6 Marine Wetlands 443

15.7 Biological Invaders 444

15.8 Overfishing and Incidental Catch 446

Trends in Fishing Pressure 446

Indirect Impacts 447

Fish Farming 448

Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management 449

15.9 Afterthoughts 450

Summary 451

Key Terms 452

Study Problems 452

C H A P T E R 16

The Oceans and Climate

Disruption 455

16.1 Earth as a Whole: The Oceans and Climate 456

16.2 The Ocean and Climate Change 457

Earth’s Past Climate 458

Earth’s Present Climate 459

Earth’s Future Climate 461

16.3 The Oceans in a Warmer World 463

Ocean Acidificaon 463

Rising Sea Level 464

Winds, Waves, and Storms 465

Diving in Arctic Sea Ice Loss, Midlatitude Extreme Weather,

and Superstorm Sandy 466

Thermohaline Circulation 468

Biological Responses 468

16.4 Mitigation Strategies 469

Ocean Energy 469

Carbon Sequestration 470

Diving in The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 472

The International Response 474

Summary 475

Key Terms 475

Study Problems 476

Appendix A Scientific (or Exponential) Notation 477

Appendix B SI Units 479

Appendix C Equations and Quantitative Relationships 483

Glossary 487

Index 497

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