Rubber Technology, Volume I-II
By S. C. Bhatia and Avishek Goel
Volume I
Preface xvii
Section I: General considerations and engineering aspects 1
- Basic concepts of polymerisation 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Monomers and polymers 3
1.3 Addition and condensation polymers 10
1.4 Mechanism of polymerisation 13
1.5 Polymer degradation 13
1.6 Biopolymers 16
- Natural rubber 19
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Tapping techniques 20
2.3 Latex technology 22
2.4 Processing of latex compound 28
Section II: Synthetic rubbers—non-oil resistant, special purpose and other specialty rubbers 33
- Synthetic rubbers: An overview 35
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Classification of synthetic rubbers 36
3.3 Brief description of important synthetic rubbers 37
- Styrene butadiene rubber 41
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Chemical structure and properties 42
4.3 Production technology 44
4.4 Technical developments 47
4.5 Compounding and processing of SBR 48
- Polybutadiene rubber 55
5.1 Introduction 55
5.2 Chemistry and manufacturing process 55
5.3 Types of PBR 56
5.4 Application for styrenics modification 59
5.5 Properties of PBR 62
5.6 Uses of PBR 63
- Polyisoprene rubber 65
6.1 Introduction 65
6.2 Production of polyisoprene 66
6.3 Applications of polyisoprene 69
6.4 Properties of polyisoprene 70
- Butyl and halobutyl rubber 73
7.1 Introduction 73
7.2 Manufacture of butyl rubber 73
7.3 Properties of butyl rubber 75
7.4 Halogenated butyl rubber 77
7.5 Chlorobutyl vulcanisation and applications 82
- Ethylene propylene rubber 87
8.1 Introduction 87
8.2 Manufacturing processes of EPDM 87
8.3 Manufacture and processing of EPDM 89
8.4 Elements of compounding EPDM 92
8.5 Compounding EPDM for various applications 94
8.6 Polymer variables and properties 97
- Thermoplastic rubber (Elastomers) 101
9.1 Introduction 101
9.2 Thermoplastic elastomer 102
9.3 Thermodynamics of elasticity 108
9.4 Structure of thermoplastic elastomers 109
9.5 Synthesis of thermoplastic elastomers 110
9.6 Processing methods of thermoplastic elastomers 112
9.7 Future directions of thermoplastic elastomers 121
- Chloroprene rubber 125
10.1 Introduction 125
10.2 Compounding dry neoprenes 126
10.3 Processing dry neoprenes 129
10.4 Applications of neoprenes 130
10.5 Neoprene latex 132
- Chlorosulphonated polyethylene rubber 137
11.1 Introduction 137
11.2 Process of manufacture of HYPALON 137
11.3 Processing of HYPALON 144
11.4 Properties of CSM 144
11.5 Applications of CSM 146
- Nitrile rubber 149
12.1 Introduction 149
12.2 Chemistry and manufacturing process of NBR 150
12.3 General types of NBR 151
12.4 Compounding of NBR 153
12.5 Hydrogenated NBR (H-NBR or ENM or HSN) 158
12.6 Latest developments of NBR 159
- Polyacrylic rubber 161
13.1 Introduction 161
13.2 Compounding and processing of ACM 162
13.3 General processing of polyacrylic rubber (ACM) 165
13.4 Future developments of polyacrylic rubber (ACM) 170
- Fluorocarbon rubber 171
14.1 Introduction 171
14.2 Manufacturing of fluorocarbon rubbers 172
14.3 Processing and curing of fluorocarbon rubbers 173
14.4 Compounding of FKM 176
14.5 Compounding of FKM for specific properties 177
14.6 Tetrafluoroethylene/propylene-copolymer 178
14.7 Properties of FKM vulcanisates 179
14.8 Advantages and disadvantages of fluorocarbon rubbers 180
14.9 Applications of fluorocarbon rubbers 180
14.10 Additional developments of fluoro elastomers 182
- Silicone rubber 185
15.1 Introduction 185
15.2 Vulcanisation of silicone rubber 186
15.3 Compounding ingredients 186
15.4 Compounding of silicone rubber 188
15.5 Advantages and disadvantages of silicone rubber 197
15.6 Properties of silicone rubber 197
15.7 Applications of silicone rubber 198
- Thermoplastic polyurethane 201
16.1 Introduction 201
16.2 Basic reactions in polyurethane chemistry 202
16.3 Polyurethane components 203
16.4 Polymerisation of polyurethane 204
16.5 Properties of polyurethane (AU) 204
16.6 Compounding of polyurethane (AU) 205
16.7 Processing of polyurethane (AU) 206
16.8 Properties and uses of polyurethane (AU) vulcanisates 206
16.9 Selection criteria for cast polyurethane elastomers 208
16.10 Advantages and limitations of polyurethane 209
16.11 Polyester and polyether 211
- PEVA, chlorinated polyethylene and ethylene acrylic elastomers 213
17.1 Introduction 213
17.2 Chemical structure of PEVA 213
17.3 Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) 216
17.4 Ethylene acrylic elastomers 218
- Polysulphide, norbornene and polyphosphazene rubbers 223
18.1 Introduction 223
18.2 Polysulphide rubber 223
18.3 Polynorbornenes rubber 226
18.4 Polyphosphazene rubber 227
Section III: Vulcanisation mixing and calendering of rubber 231
- Chemistry and technology of vulcanisation 233
19.1 Introduction 233
19.2 Vulcanisation systems 234
19.3 Mechanism of rubber vulcanisation 235
- Materials for compounding and reinforcement 245
20.1 Introduction 245
20.2 Metal oxides 246
20.3 Accelerators 248
20.4 Retarders 251
20.5 Fillers 251
20.6 Antidegradants 258
20.7 Antioxidants 259
20.8 Softeners 261
20.9 Peptisers 262
20.10 Plasticisers 262
20.11 Colours and pigments 265
20.12 Tackyfying agents 266
20.13 Blowing agents 267
- Mixing and curing of rubber compounds 269
21.1 Introduction 269
21.2 Material flow to the mixer 270
21.3 Mixing process 274
21.4 Internal mixers 280
21.5 Take-off systems 291
21.6 Other mixing equipment 292
21.7 Custom compounding 294
21.8 Troubleshooting the mixing process 295
21.9 Curing process 296
21.10 Scorch or premature vulcanisation 298
- Calendering, extrusion and molding of rubber compounds 301
22.1 Introduction 301
22.2 Equipment for rubber calendering 301
22.3 Process of calendering 302
22.4 Troubleshooting problems in calendering 304
22.5 Extrusion of rubber 304
22.6 Extruder operation and control 310
22.7 Shaping of rubber 311
22.8 Take-off and curing 314
22.9 Troubleshooting the extrusion process 317
22.10 Molding of rubber 318
22.11 Compression and transfer molding 319
22.12 Injection molding of rubber 319
Volume II
Section IV: Manufacturing techniques of rubber products 329
- Tyres 331
23.1 Introduction 331
23.2 Tyre manufacturing process 331
23.3 Characteristics of manufacturing tyres 331
23.4 Preparation of materials for tyre manufacturing 333
23.5 Preparation of members 335
23.6 Manufacture of green tyres 336
23.7 Vulcanisation of tyres 337
23.8 Finishing of tyres operation 338
23.9 Manufacturing of rubber products and
energy consumption 340
23.10 Tyre manufacturing and energy conservation 341
23.11 Reduction in the energy cost 342
23.12 Energy conservation in the tyre manufacturing factories 342
23.13 Role of cooling tower in tyre factories 345
- Rubber conveyor belt 351
24.1 Introduction 351
24.2 Process of manufacture of conveyor belt 351
24.3 Rubber textile composites 354
24.4 Safety of using belt conveyor 357
- Rubber hose 359
25.1 Introduction 359
25.2 Manufacturing of hose 359
25.3 Type of hoses 361
25.4 Factors affecting hose service life 366
25.5 Steam hose warning 367
25.6 Chemical hose warning 368
25.7 Static electricity warning 368
25.8 Care maintenance and storage of hose 369
25.9 Testing methods for hose 372
- Rubber footwear 375
26.1 Introduction 375
26.2 Shoes and shoe making 375
26.3 Hand assembled shoe making process 376
26.4 Types of rubber footwear 379
- Cellular rubber 385
27.1 Introduction 385
27.2 Manufacture of cellular rubber 385
27.3 Sponge rubber 386
27.4 Standards for dimensional tolerances 389
- Sports goods 393
28.1 Introduction 393
28.2 Tennis balls 394
28.3 Golf balls 396
28.4 Squash balls 400
- Anti vibration mounts 405
29.1 Introduction 405
29.2 Role of rubber in anti vibration mounts 406
29.3 Manufacturing process of anti vibration mounts 408
29.4 Types of mounts of anti vibration mounts 408
- Rubber rollers 413
30.1 Introduction 413
30.2 Process of rubber roller manufacturing 414
30.3 Industrial rollers 418
30.4 Maintenance of rubber rollers 422
30.5 Production of rubber sheets from roller lines 424
- Rubber to metal bonding 429
31.1 Introduction 429
31.2 Bonding layer 430
31.3 Bonding process 431
31.4 Rubber to metal assemblies 433
31.5 Manufacturing methods 436
31.6 Testing of rubber to metal bond 441
31.7 Applications of rubber to metal bonding 443
- Manufacture of miscellaneous rubber products 445
32.1 Introduction 445
32.2 Engine mountings 445
32.3 Process of manufacture of engine mountings 445
32.4 Auto tubes and flaps 446
32.5 Rubber cables 446
32.6 Rubber gaskets 450
32.7 Rubber matting 452
32.8 Latex gloves 454
32.9 Microcellular rubber sheets 455
32.10 Products based on spread fabrics 456
Section V: Pollution control and energy conservation in rubber industry 459
- Pollution control in rubber industry 461
33.1 Introduction 461
33.2 Natural rubber processing industry 461
33.3 Emissions from rubber industry 473
33.4 Control of air emission and noise mitigation 475
33.5 Wastewater generation in tyre industry 477
33.6 Control and treatment technology 479
33.7 Reclaimed rubber 479
- Energy conservation in rubber industry 483
34.1 Introduction 483
34.2 Energy saving in rubber industry 484
34.3 Importance of steam in mixers and mills 486
34.4 High pressure hot water in tyre manufacturing 494
34.5 Cooling systems in mixing milling 494
34.6 Chilled water in rubber processing 497
34.7 Hydraulic systems in rubber processing 498
34.8 Compressed air in rubber processing 499
34.9 Ventilation systems in rubber processing 502
34.10 Role of insulation in rubber processing 504
34.11 Motors and drives in compounding and extrusion equipments 504
34.12 Lighting in rubber processing industry 505
34.13 Heating in curing and mixing rubber 507
Section VI: Carbon footprints and nanotechnology in rubber industry 509
- Carbon footprint in rubber industry 511
35.1 Introduction 511
35.2 Carbon footprint in rubber industry 511
35.3 Adverse effects of carbon footprint 512
35.4 Carbon footprint calculation 515
35.5 Cradle-to-grave 516
35.6 Greenhouse gas emissions from rubber tree plantations 520
35.7 Reducing of carbon footprint 522
- Role of nanotechnology in rubber industry 525
36.1 Introduction 525
36.2 Nanomaterials applications in rubber 525
36.3 Benefits of rubber industry from nanotechnology 527
36.4 Nanotechnology applications in automotive industry 530
36.5 Nanotechnology for tyres 533
36.6 Nano particles in automobile tyres 534
36.7 Reducing zinc oxide in rubber industry by mixed metal oxide nano particles 537
Section VII: Applications, safety and testing of rubber products 543
- Engineering and other applications of rubber products 545
37.1 Introduction 545
37.2 Applications of rubber in aerospace 545
37.3 Applications of rubber in railway engineering 547
37.4 Anti-static and conductive uses of rubber 549
37.5 Applications of rubber sheets 549
37.6 Applications of rubber bearings for bridges 550
37.7 Applications of rubber in piers and fenders 551
37.8 Applications of rubber in buildings 552
37.9 Applications of rubber in packaging 552
37.10 Application of rubber in automobiles and allied industries 552
37.11 Applications of rubber in construction and chemical industries 555
- Health and safety aspects in rubber industry 559
38.1 Introduction 559
38.2 Safety aspects in rubber compounding – powder handling, mixing and milling 559
38.3 Safety aspects in extrusion of rubber 562
38.4 Safety aspects in calendering of rubber products 563
38.5 Cloth coating 566
38.6 Fabrication (including tank lining, roller covering and hose winding) 567
38.7 Vulcanisation (including presses, autoclaves and continuous vulcanisation) 569
38.8 Latex processing 572
38.9 Polyurethanes (including PU foam production, re-constituted foam, foam conversion and rigid urethanes) 573
38.10 Tyre building 575
38.11 Tyre retreading 576
38.12 Summary of safety and precautions in rubber industry 577
- Testing of rubber products 579
39.1 Introduction 579
39.2 Testing of rubber compounds after mixing 580
39.3 Processability test instruments 582
39.4 Microprocessor control, automatic calibration 592
39.5 Testing of finished rubber product 593
39.6 Tests of filler distribution and dispersion 594
39.7 Tests on cured specimens 594
39.8 Improving rubber testing with microcomputers 597
Glossary 611
Appendices 637
References 653
Index 655