General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications, Eleventh Edition
By Ralph H Petrucci, F Geoffrey Herring, Jeffry D Madura and Carey Bissonnette
Contents:
About the Authors xvi
Preface xviii
1 Matter: Its Properties and Measurement 1
1-1 The Scientific Method 2
1-2 Properties of Matter 4
1-3 Classification of Matter 5
1-4 Measurement of Matter: SI (Metric) Units 8
1-5 Density and Percent Composition: Their Use in Problem Solving 13
1-6 Uncertainties in Scientific Measurements 18
1-7 Significant Figures 19
Summary 23 Integrative Example 24
Exercises 26 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 29
Feature Problems 31 Self-Assessment Exercises 32
2 Atoms and the Atomic Theory 34
2-1 Early Chemical Discoveries and the Atomic Theory 35
2-2 Electrons and Other Discoveries in Atomic Physics 38
2-3 The Nuclear Atom 42
2-4 Chemical Elements 44
2-5 Atomic Mass 48
2-6 Introduction to the Periodic Table 51
2-7 The Concept of the Mole and the Avogadro Constant 55
2-8 Using the Mole Concept in Calculations 57
Summary 59 Integrative Example 60
Exercises 61 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 65
Feature Problems 66 Self-Assessment Exercises 67
3 Chemical Compounds 68
3-1 Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas 69
3-2 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds 73
3-3 Composition of Chemical Compounds 76
3-4 Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in Describing Chemical Compounds 84
3-5 Naming Compounds: Organic and Inorganic Compounds 86
3-6 Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds 87
3-7 Names and Formulas of Organic Compounds 94
Summary 100 Integrative Example 101
Exercises 103 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 107
Feature Problems 109 Self-Assessment Exercises 110
4 Chemical Reactions 111
4-1 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations 112
4-2 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry 115
4-3 Chemical Reactions in Solution 122
4-4 Determining the Limiting Reactant 128
4-5 Other Practical Matters in Reaction Stoichiometry 131
4-6 The Extent of Reaction 137
Summary 139 Integrative Example 140
Exercises 141 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 146
Feature Problems 150 Self-Assessment Exercises 150
5 Introduction to Reactions in Aqueous Solutions 152
5-1 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions 153
5-2 Precipitation Reactions 157
5-3 Acid–Base Reactions 161
5-4 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions: Some General Principles 167
5-5 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 171
5-6 Oxidizing and Reducing Agents 176
5-7 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solutions: Titrations 179
Summary 183 Integrative Example 183
Exercises 185 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 189
Feature Problems 191 Self-Assessment Exercises 192
6 Gases 194
6-1 Properties of Gases: Gas Pressure 195
6-2 The Simple Gas Laws 201
6-3 Combining the Gas Laws: The Ideal Gas Equation
and the General Gas Equation 206
6-4 Applications of the Ideal Gas Equation 209
6-5 Gases in Chemical Reactions 212
6-6 Mixtures of Gases 214
6-7 Kinetic–Molecular Theory of Gases 218
6-8 Gas Properties Relating to the Kinetic–Molecular Theory 225
6-9 Nonideal (Real) Gases 228
Summary 232 Integrative Example 232
Exercises 234 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 238
Feature Problems 241 Self-Assessment Exercises 242
7 Thermochemistry 244
7-1 Getting Started: Some Terminology 245
7-2 Heat 247
7-3 Heats of Reaction and Calorimetry 252
7-4 Work 256
7-5 The First Law of Thermodynamics 259
7-6 Application of the First Law to Chemical
and Physical Changes 263
7-7 Indirect Determination of : Hess’s Law 270
7-8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 272
7-9 Fuels as Sources of Energy 279
7-10 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes: An Introduction 285
Summary 287 Integrative Example 288
Exercises 290 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 295
Feature Problems 298 Self-Assessment Exercises 300
8 Electrons in Atoms 301
8-1 Electromagnetic Radiation 302
8-2 Prelude to Quantum Theory 307
8-3 Energy Levels, Spectrum, and Ionization
Energy of the Hydrogen Atom 316
8-4 Two Ideas Leading to Quantum Mechanics 321
8-5 Wave Mechanics 325
8-6 Quantum Theory of the Hydrogen Atom 331
8-7 Interpreting and Representing the Orbitals
of the Hydrogen Atom 337
8-8 Electron Spin: A Fourth Quantum Number 347
8-9 Multielectron Atoms 350
8-10 Electron Configurations 353
8-11 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 358
Summary 363 Integrative Example 364
Exercises 366 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 372
Feature Problems 373 Self-Assessment Exercises 375
9 The Periodic Table and Some Atomic
Properties 376
9-1 Classifying the Elements: The Periodic Law
and the Periodic Table 377
9-2 Metals and Nonmetals and Their Ions 380
9-3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions 383
9-4 Ionization Energy 393
9-5 Electron Affinity 397
9-6 Magnetic Properties 399
9-7 Polarizability 400
Summary 402 Integrative Example 403
Exercises 405 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 407
Feature Problems 408 Self-Assessment Exercises 409
10 Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts 411
10-1 Lewis Theory: An Overview 412
10-2 Covalent Bonding: An Introduction 415
10-3 Polar Covalent Bonds and Electrostatic Potential Maps 418
10-4 Writing Lewis Structures 424
10-5 Resonance 432
10-6 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 434
10-7 Shapes of Molecules 437
10-8 Bond Order and Bond Lengths 449
10-9 Bond Energies 450
Summary 454 Integrative Example 455
Exercises 456 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 461
Feature Problems 463 Self-Assessment Exercises 464
11 Chemical Bonding II: Valence Bond and Molecular Orbital Theories 466
11-1 What a Bonding Theory Should Do 467
11-2 Introduction to the Valence Bond Method 470
11-3 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 472
11-4 Multiple Covalent Bonds 481
11-5 Molecular Orbital Theory 486
11-6 Delocalized Electrons: An Explanation Based on Molecular Orbital Theory 497
11-7 Some Unresolved Issues: Can Electron Density Plots Help? 503
Summary 508 Integrative Example 509
Exercises 510 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 512
Feature Problems 514 Self-Assessment Exercises 515
12 Intermolecular Forces: Liquids and Solids 517
12-1 Intermolecular Forces 518
12-2 Some Properties of Liquids 526
12-3 Some Properties of Solids 540
12-4 Phase Diagrams 541
12-5 The Nature of Bonding in Solids 546
12-6 Crystal Structures 551
12-7 Energy Changes in the Formation of Ionic Crystals 563
Summary 565 Integrative Example 566
Exercises 567 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 572
Feature Problems 574 Self-Assessment Exercises 577
13 Spontaneous Change: Entropy and Gibbs Energy 579
13-1 Entropy: Boltzmann’s View 580
13-2 Entropy Change: Clausius’s View 588
13-3 Combining Boltzmann’s and Clausius’s Ideas: Absolute Entropies 595
13-4 Criterion for Spontaneous Change: The Second Law of Thermodynamics 599
13-5 Gibbs Energy Change of a System of Variable
Composition: and 605
13-6 and K as Functions of Temperature 619
13-7 Coupled Reactions 622
13-8 Chemical Potential and Thermodynamics of Spontaneous
Chemical Change 623
Summary 628 Integrative Example 629
Exercises 630 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 635
Feature Problems 636 Self-Assessment Exercises 638
14 Solutions and Their Physical Properties 640
14-1 Types of Solutions: Some Terminology 641
14-2 Solution Concentration 641
14-3 Intermolecular Forces and the Solution Process 645
14-4 Solution Formation and Equilibrium 654
14-5 Solubilities of Gases 657
14-6 Vapor Pressures of Solutions 660
14-7 Osmotic Pressure 665
14-8 Freezing-Point Depression and Boiling-Point Elevation of
Nonelectrolyte Solutions 669
14-9 Solutions of Electrolytes 672
14-10 Colloidal Mixtures 674
Summary 677 Integrative Example 678
Exercises 679 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 684
Feature Problems 686 Self-Assessment Exercises 687
15 Principles of Chemical Equilibrium 689
15-1 The Nature of the Equilibrium State 690
15-2 The Equilibrium Constant Expression 695
15-3 Relationships Involving Equilibrium Constants 699
15-4 The Magnitude of an Equilibrium Constant 703
15-5 Predicting the Direction of Net Chemical Change 705
15-6 Altering Equilibrium Conditions: Le Châtelier’s Principle 707
15-7 Equilibrium Calculations: Some Illustrative Examples 713
Summary 722 Integrative Example 723
Exercises 724 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 730
Feature Problems 732 Self-Assessment Exercises 733
16 Acids and Bases 734
16-1 Acids, Bases, and Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 735
16-2 Self-Ionization of Water and the pH Scale 739
16-3 Ionization of Acids and Bases in Water 742
16-4 Strong Acids and Strong Bases 750
16-5 Weak Acids and Weak Bases 752
16-6 Polyprotic Acids 757
16-7 Simultaneous or Consecutive Acid–Base Reactions:
A General Approach 761
16-8 Ions as Acids and Bases 762
16-9 Qualitative Aspects of Acid–Base Reactions 768
16-10 Molecular Structure and Acid–Base Behavior 769
16-11 Lewis Acids and Bases 776
Summary 779 Integrative Example 780
Exercises 782 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 786
Feature Problems 787 Self-Assessment Exercises 788
17 Additional Aspects of Acid–Base Equilibria 789
17-1 Common-Ion Effect in Acid–Base Equilibria 790
17-2 Buffer Solutions 794
17-3 Acid–Base Indicators 804
17-4 Neutralization Reactions and Titration Curves 807
17-5 Solutions of Salts of Polyprotic Acids 816
17-6 Acid–Base Equilibrium Calculations: A Summary 818
Summary 819 Integrative Example 820
Exercises 821 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 825
Feature Problems 828 Self-Assessment Exercises 829
18 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria 830
18-1 Solubility Product Constant, 831
18-2 Relationship Between Solubility and 832
18-3 Common-Ion Effect in Solubility Equilibria 834
18-4 Limitations of the Concept 836
18-5 Criteria for Precipitation and Its Completeness 838
18-6 Fractional Precipitation 841
18-7 Solubility and pH 843
18-8 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 845
18-9 Qualitative Cation Analysis 851
Summary 856 Integrative Example 856
Exercises 858 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 861
Feature Problems 862 Self-Assessment Exercises 863
19 Electrochemistry 865
19-1 Electrode Potentials and Their Measurement 866
19-2 Standard Electrode Potentials 871
19-3 and K 877
19-4 as a Function of Concentrations 883
19-5 Batteries: Producing Electricity Through Chemical Reactions 891
19-6 Corrosion: Unwanted Voltaic Cells 898
19-7 Electrolysis: Causing Nonspontaneous Reactions to Occur 900
19-8 Industrial Electrolysis Processes 904
Summary 908 Integrative Example 909
Exercises 911 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 916
Feature Problems 918 Self-Assessment Exercises 921
20 Chemical Kinetics 922
20-1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction 923
20-2 Measuring Reaction Rates 925
20-3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rates: The Rate Law 928
20-4 Zero-Order Reactions 931
20-5 First-Order Reactions 932
20-6 Second-Order Reactions 939
20-7 Reaction Kinetics: A Summary 940
20-8 Theoretical Models for Chemical Kinetics 942
20-9 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates 946
20-10 Reaction Mechanisms 949
20-11 Catalysis 958
Summary 964 Integrative Example 965
Exercises 967 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 972
Feature Problems 974 Self-Assessment Exercises 976
21 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements I:
Groups 1, 2, 13, and 14 977
21-1 Periodic Trends and Charge Density 978
21-2 Group 1: The Alkali Metals 980
21-3 Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals 993
21-4 Group 13: The Boron Family 1001
21-5 Group 14: The Carbon Family 1011
Summary 1028 Integrative Example 1029
Exercises 1030 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1032
Feature Problems 1034 Self-Assessment Exercises 1034
22 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements II:
Groups 18, 17, 16, 15, and Hydrogen 1036
22-1 Periodic Trends in Bonding 1037
22-2 Group 18: The Noble Gases 1039
22-3 Group 17: The Halogens 1045
22-4 Group 16: The Oxygen Family 1054
22-5 Group 15: The Nitrogen Family 1064
22-6 Hydrogen: A Unique Element 1077
Summary 1081 Integrative Example 1082
Exercises 1083 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1086
Feature Problems 1088 Self-Assessment Exercises 1089
23 The Transition Elements 1091
23-1 General Properties 1092
23-2 Principles of Extractive Metallurgy 1097
23-3 Metallurgy of Iron and Steel 1104
23-4 First-Row Transition Metal Elements: Scandium to Manganese 1106
23-5 The Iron Triad: Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel 1112
23-6 Group 11: Copper, Silver, and Gold 1114
23-7 Group 12: Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury 1116
23-8 Lanthanides 1119
23-9 High-Temperature Superconductors 1119
Summary 1122 Integrative Example 1122
Exercises 1123 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1126
Feature Problems 1127 Self-Assessment Exercises 1128
24 Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds 1129
24-1 Werner’s Theory of Coordination Compounds:
An Overview 1130
24-2 Ligands 1132
24-3 Nomenclature 1135
24-4 Isomerism 1136
24-5 Bonding in Complex Ions: Crystal Field Theory 1143
24-6 Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
and Crystal Field Theory 1148
24-7 Color and the Colors of Complexes 1150
24-8 Aspects of Complex-Ion Equilibria 1153
24-9 Acid–Base Reactions of Complex Ions 1155
24-10 Some Kinetic Considerations 1156
24-11 Applications of Coordination Chemistry 1157
Summary 1162 Integrative Example 1163
Exercises 1164 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1166
Feature Problems 1168 Self-Assessment Exercises 1169
25 Nuclear Chemistry 1170
25-1 Radioactivity 1171
25-2 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Isotopes 1174
25-3 Nuclear Reactions and Artificially Induced Radioactivity 1176
25-4 Transuranium Elements 1177
25-5 Rate of Radioactive Decay 1178
25-6 Energetics of Nuclear Reactions 1184
25-7 Nuclear Stability 1187
25-8 Nuclear Fission 1190
25-9 Nuclear Fusion 1193
25-10 Effect of Radiation on Matter 1194
25-11 Applications of Radioisotopes 1197
Summary 1199 Integrative Example 1200
Exercises 1201 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1204
Feature Problems 1205 Self-Assessment Exercises 1206
26 Structures of Organic Compounds 1207
26-1 Organic Compounds and Structures: An Overview 1208
26-2 Alkanes 1215
26-3 Cycloalkanes 1221
26-4 Stereoisomerism in Organic Compounds 1228
26-5 Alkenes and Alkynes 1235
26-6 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 1239
26-7 Organic Compounds Containing Functional Groups 1241
26-8 From Molecular Formula to Molecular Structure 1252
Summary 1255 Integrative Example 1257
Exercises 1258 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1264
Feature Problem 1265 Self-Assessment Exercises 1267
27 Reactions of Organic Compounds 1268
27-1 Organic Reactions: An Introduction 1269
27-2 Introduction to Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions 1271
27-3 Introduction to Elimination Reactions 1285
27-4 Reactions of Alcohols 1294
27-5 Introduction to Addition Reactions: Reactions of Alkenes 1299
27-6 Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution 1304
27-7 Reactions of Alkanes 1308
27-8 Polymers and Polymerization Reactions 1310
27-9 Synthesis of Organic Compounds 1314
Summary 1316 Integrative Example 1317
Exercises 1319 Integrative and Advanced Exercises 1323
Feature Problem 1324 Self-Assessment Exercises 1325
28 Chemistry of the Living State on Mastering Chemistry
(www.masteringchemistry.com)
APPENDICES
A Mathematical Operations A1
B Some Basic Physical Concepts A11
C SI Units A15
D Data Tables A17
E Concept Maps A37
F Glossary A39
G Answers to Practice Examples and Selected
Exercises A56
H Answers to Concept Assessment Questions A90