Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, Eleventh Edition
By Frederic H. Martini, Judi L. Nath and Edwin F. Bartholomew
Contents:
UNIT 1 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATIONS
1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology 47
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body 48
1-1 To make the most of your learning, read the text and view the art together 48
Getting to Know Your Textbook 48
Anatomy of a Chapter 49
1-2 Anatomy (structure) and physiology (function) are closely integrated 49
Anatomy 50
Physiology 51
1-3 Levels of organization progress from chemicals to a complete organism 52
1-4 Medical terminology is important to understanding anatomy and physiology 53
1-5 Anatomical terms describe body regions, anatomical positions and directions, and body sections 53
Surface Anatomy 53
Sectional Anatomy 59
1-6 Body cavities of the trunk protect internal organs and allow them to change shape 60
The Thoracic Cavity 61
The Abdominopelvic Cavity 64
1-7 Homeostasis, the state of internal balance, is continuously regulated 64
Mechanisms of Homeostatic Regulation 65
An Overview of the Process of Homeostatic Regulation 65
1-8 Negative feedback opposes variations from normal, whereas positive feedback enhances them 65
The Role of Negative Feedback in Homeostasis 66
The Role of Positive Feedback in Homeostasis 68
Systems Integration, Equilibrium, and Homeostasis 69
Chapter Review 70
SmartArt Videos
Figure 1–10 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting. 68
Spotlights
Levels of Organization 54
Clinical Case
Using A&P to Save a Life 48
Clinical Notes
Habeas Corpus (“You Shall Have the Body”) 51
The Sounds of the Body 59
Diagnostic Imaging Techniques 62
2 The Chemical Level of
Organization 73
An Introduction to the Chemical Level of Organization 74
2-1 Atoms are the basic particles of matter 74
Atomic Structure 74
Elements and Isotopes 75
Atomic Weights 76
Electrons and Energy Levels 77
2-2 Chemical bonds are forces formed by interactions between atoms 78
Ionic Bonds 80
Covalent Bonds 81
Hydrogen Bonds 82
States of Matter 83
2-3 Decomposition, synthesis, and exchange reactions are important types of chemical reactions in physiology 83
Basic Energy Concepts 83
Types of Chemical Reactions 84
2-4 Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering the energy needed to start them 85
2-5 Inorganic compounds lack carbon, and organic compounds contain carbon 86
2-6 Physiological systems depend on water 86 The Properties of Aqueous Solutions 87
Colloids and Suspensions 88
2-7 Body fluid pH is vital for homeostasis 89
2-8 Acids, bases, and salts have important physiological roles 90
Acids and Bases 90
Salts 90
Buffers and pH Control 90
2-9 Living things contain organic compounds made up of monomers, polymers, and functional groups 91
2-10 Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio 91
Monosaccharides 91
Disaccharides and Polysaccharides 92
2-11 Lipids often contain a carbon-to-hydrogen ratio
of 1:2 93
Fatty Acids 94
Eicosanoids 94
Glycerides 95
Steroids 96
Phospholipids and Glycolipids 97
2-12 Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and are formed from amino acids 97
Protein Structure 99
Protein Shape 100
Enzyme Function 101
Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans 103
2-13 DNA and RNA are nucleic acids 103
Structure of Nucleic Acids 103
Comparison of RNA and DNA 103
2-14 ATP is a high-energy compound used by cells 105
Chapter Review 107
Spotlights
Chemical Notation 79
Clinical Case
What Is Wrong with My Baby? 74
Clinical Notes
Radiation Sickness 78
Too Sweet on Sugar? 95
3 The Cellular Level
of Organization 111
An Introduction to Cells 112
3-1 The plasma membrane separates the cell from its surrounding environment and performs various functions 112
Membrane Lipids 113
Membrane Proteins 113
Membrane Carbohydrates 117
3-2 Organelles within the cytoplasm perform particular functions 117
The Cytosol 118
Nonmembranous Organelles 118
Membranous Organelles 122
3-3 The nucleus contains DNA and enzymes essential for controlling cellular activities 129
Structure of the Nucleus 129
Information Storage in the Nucleus 130
3-4 DNA controls protein synthesis, cell structure, and cell function 131
Regulation of Transcription by Gene Activation 131
Transcription of DNA into mRNA 131
Translation from mRNA into a Polypeptide 133
How DNA Controls Cell Structure and Function 135
3-5 Diffusion is a passive transport mechanism that assists membrane passage of solutes and water 136
Diffusion 136
Osmosis: Diffusion of Water across Selectively Permeable Membranes 139
3-6 Carrier-mediated and vesicular transport assist membrane passage of specific substances 140
Carrier-Mediated Transport 141
Vesicular Transport 143
3-7 The membrane potential of a cell results from the unequal distribution of positive and negative charges
across the plasma membrane 145
3-8 Stages of the cell life cycle include interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis 148
The Cell Life Cycle 148
The Mitotic Rate and Energy Use 149
3-9 Several factors regulate the cell life cycle 149
3-10 Abnormal cell growth and division characterize tumors and cancers 153
3-11 Cellular differentiation is cellular specialization as a result of gene activation or repression 155
Chapter Review 156
SmartArt Videos
Figure 3–12 mRNA Transcription. 132
Figure 3–13 The Process of Translation. 134
Spotlights
Anatomy of a Model Cell 114
Protein Synthesis, Processing, and Packaging 124
Overview of Membrane Transport 146
Stages of a Cell’s Life Cycle 150
DNA Replication 152
Clinical Case
The Beat Must Go On! 112
Clinical Notes
Lysosomal Storage Diseases 126
Free Radicals 128
DNA Fingerprinting 131
Mutations 133
Drugs and the Plasma Membrane 137
Telomerase, Aging, and Cancer 154
Breakthroughs with Stem Cells 155
4 The Tissue Level
of Organization 160
An Introduction to the Tissue Level of Organization 161
4-1 The four tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous 161
4-2 Epithelial tissue covers body surfaces, lines internal surfaces, and serves other essential functions 161
Functions of Epithelial Tissue 162
Characteristics of Epithelial Tissue 163
Specializations of Epithelial Cells 163
Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia 164
4-3 Cell shape and number of layers determine the
classification of epithelia 166
Classification of Epithelia 166
Glandular Epithelia 168
4-4 Connective tissue has varied roles in the body that reflect the physical properties of its three main types 172
4-5 Connective tissue proper includes loose connective tissues that fill internal spaces and dense connective tissues
that contribute to the internal framework of
the body 174
Structure of Connective Tissue Proper 174
Loose Connective Tissues 176
Dense Connective Tissues 179
Fasciae: Layers of Connective Tissue Proper 179
4-6 Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues that transport cells and dissolved materials 181
4-7 The supporting connective tissues cartilage and bone provide a strong framework 182
Cartilage 182
Bone 183
4-8 Tissue membranes made from epithelia and connective tissue make up four types of physical barriers 186
Mucous Membranes 186
Serous Membranes 186
The Cutaneous Membrane 187
Synovial Membranes 188
4-9 The three types of muscle tissue are skeletal, cardiac, and smooth 188
Skeletal Muscle Tissue 188
Cardiac Muscle Tissue 190
Smooth Muscle Tissue 190
4-10 Nervous tissue responds to stimuli and propagates electrical impulses throughout the body 190
4-11 The response to tissue injury involves inflammation and regeneration 191
Inflammation 191
Regeneration 192
4-12 With advancing age, tissue regeneration decreases
and cancer rates increase 192
Aging and Tissue Structure 192
Aging and Cancer Incidence 192
Chapter Review 194
Spotlights
Inflammation and Regeneration 193
Clinical Case
The Rubber Girl 161
Clinical Notes
Exfoliative Cytology 172
Marfan Syndrome 177
UNIT 2 SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT
5 The Integumentary
System 198
An Introduction to the Integumentary System 199
5-1 The epidermis is a protective covering composed of layers with various functions 199
Cells of the Epidermis: Keratinocytes 200
Layers of the Epidermis 200
Epidermal Growth Factor 203
5-2 The dermis is the tissue layer that supports the
epidermis 204
Layers of the Dermis 204
Dermal Strength and Elasticity 204
Tension Lines 205
The Dermal Blood Supply 205
Innervation of the Skin 206
5-3 The subcutaneous layer connects the dermis to underlying tissues 206
5-4 Epidermal pigmentation and dermal circulation influence skin color 207
The Role of Epidermal Pigmentation 207
The Role of Dermal Circulation: Hemoglobin 209
Disease-Related Changes in Skin Color 209
5-5 Sunlight causes epidermal cells to convert a steroid into vitamin D3 209
5-6 Hair is made of keratinized dead cells pushed to the
skin surface where it has protecting and insulating roles 211
Hair and Hair Follicle Structure 211
Hair Production 212
The Hair Growth Cycle 212
Types of Hairs 214
Hair Color 214
5-7 Sebaceous glands and sweat glands are exocrine glands found in the skin 214
Sebaceous Glands 214
Sweat Glands 215
Other Integumentary Glands 216 Control of Glandular Secretions and Thermoregulation 216
5-8 Nails are keratinized epidermal cells that protect the tips of fingers and toes 217
5-9 After an injury, the integument is repaired in several phases 218
5-10 Effects of aging on the skin include thinning,
wrinkling, and reduced melanocyte activity 221
Build Your Knowledge Integration of the INTEGUMENTARY system with the other body systems presented so far 222
Chapter Review 223
Spotlights
The Epidermis 202
Clinical Case
He Has Fish Skin! 199
Clinical Notes
Nips, Tucks, and Shots 207
Skin Cancer 210
Decubitus Ulcers 212
Your Skin, A Mirror of Your Health 219
Burns and Grafts 220
6 Bones and Bone
Structure 226
An Introduction to Bones and Bone Tissue 227
6-1 The skeletal system has several major functions 227
6-2 Bones are classified according to shape and structure, and they have a variety of bone markings 228
Bone Shapes 228
Bone Markings 229
Bone Structure 229
6-3 Bone is composed of matrix and several types of cells: osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and
osteoclasts 229
Bone Matrix 229
Bone Cells 231
6-4 Compact bone contains parallel osteons, and spongy bone contains trabeculae 233
Compact Bone Structure 233
Spongy Bone Structure 234
Coordinated Functions of Compact and Spongy Bone 235
Surface Coverings of Bone 235
6-5 Bones form through ossification and enlarge through interstitial and appositional growth 236
Endochondral Ossification 237
Intramembranous Ossification 237
Blood and Nerve Supplies to Bone 240
6-6 Bone growth and development depend on bone
remodeling, which is a balance between bone
formation and bone resorption 240
6-7 Exercise, nutrition, and hormones affect bone
development and the skeletal system 242
The Effects of Exercise on Bone 242
Nutritional and Hormonal Effects on Bone 243
6-8 Calcium plays a critical role in bone physiology 244
The Skeleton as a Calcium Reserve 244
Hormones and Calcium Ion Balance 245
6-9 A fracture is a crack or break in a bone 247
6-10 Osteopenia has widespread effects on aging bones 250
Chapter Review 251
SmartArt Videos
Figure 6-11 Endochondral Ossification 238
Figure 6–16 Factors That Increase the Blood Calcium Ion Level. 246
Spotlights
Endochondral Ossification 238
Types of Fractures and Steps in Repair 248
Clinical Case
A Case of Child Abuse? 227
Clinical Notes
Heterotopic Bone Formation 237
Abnormal Bone Development 244
7 The Axial Skeleton 254
An Introduction to the Divisions of the Skeleton 255
7-1 The 80 bones of the head and trunk make up the axial skeleton 255
7-2 The skull’s 8 cranial bones protect the brain, and its
14 facial bones form the mouth, nose, and orbits 255
Cranial, Facial, and Associated Bones 255
Sutures 257
Sinuses, Foramina, and Fissures 271
7-3 Each orbital complex contains and protects an eye, and the nasal complex encloses the nasal cavities 271
The Orbital Complexes 271
The Nasal Complex 272
7-4 Fontanelles are non-ossified fibrous areas between cranial bones that ease birth and allow for rapid brain
growth in infants and children 272
7-5 The vertebral column has four flexible and supportive
spinal curves 274
7-6 The five vertebral regions—cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal—each have characteristic
vertebrae 275
Vertebral Anatomy 275
Characteristics of Regional Vertebrae 276
7-7 The thoracic cage protects organs in the chest and provides sites for muscle attachment 283
The Ribs 284
The Sternum 285
Chapter Review 285
Spotlight
Sectional Anatomy of the Skull 260
Clinical Case
Knocked Out 255
Clinical Notes
Temporomandibular Joint Syndrome 270
Sinusitis 273
Craniostenosis 274
Kyphosis, Lordosis, and Scoliosis 282
8 The Appendicular
Skeleton 289
An Introduction to the Appendicular Skeleton 290
8-1 The pectoral (shoulder) girdles attach the upper limbs to the axial skeleton 290
The Clavicles 290
The Scapulae 292
8-2 The bones of the upper limbs are adapted for free movement 293
Arm Bone: The Humerus 293
Bones of the Forearm 295
Bones of the Wrist and Hand 296
8-3 The pelvic girdle (hips) attaches the lower limbs to the axial skeleton 298
The Pelvic Girdle (Hip Bones) 298
The Pelvis (Pelvic Girdle, Sacrum, and Coccyx) 298
8-4 The bones of the lower limbs are adapted for
movement and support 300
The Femur (Thighbone) 300
The Patella (Kneecap) 301
Bones of the Leg 303
Bones of the Ankle and Foot 303
8-5 Differences in sex and age account for individual
skeletal variation 306
Chapter Review 308
Spotlights
Sex Differences in the Human Skeleton 307
Clinical Case
Timber!! 290
Clinical Notes
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome 297
Hip Fracture 301
Shin Splints 303
Stress Fractures 305
Club Foot 306
9 Joints 311
An Introduction to Joints 312
9-1 Joints are categorized according to their structure or
range of motion 312
9-2 Diarthroses: Synovial joints contain synovial fluid
and are surrounded by a joint capsule and stabilizing
accessory structures 314
Articular Cartilage 314
Synovial Fluid 315
Accessory Structures 315
Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints 316
9-3 Diarthroses: The different types of synovial joints
allow a wide range of skeletal movements 316
Types of Movements at Synovial Joints 316
Classification of Synovial Joints 322
9-4 Intervertebral joints contain intervertebral discs and
ligaments that allow for vertebral movements 322
Structure of Intervertebral Joints 322
Vertebral Movements 323
9-5 The elbow and knee are both hinge joints 324
The Elbow Joint 324
The Knee Joint 325
9-6 The shoulder and hip are both ball-and-socket
joints 327
The Shoulder Joint 328
The Hip Joint 329
9-7 With advancing age, arthritis and other degenerative
changes often impair joint mobility 331
9-8 The skeletal system supports and stores energy and
minerals for other body systems 332
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the SKELETAL system with the other body systems presented
so far 333
Chapter Review 334
Spotlights
Joint Movement 318
Clinical Case
What’s the Matter with the Birthday Girl? 312
Clinical Notes
Bursitis and Bunions 316
Dislocation 316
Damage to Intervertebral Discs 327
Knee Injuries 328
10 Muscle Tissue 337
An Introduction to Muscle Tissue 338
10-1 The primary function of muscle tissue is to produce
movement 338
Common Properties of Muscle Tissue 338
Functions of Skeletal Muscle 338
10-2 Skeletal muscle contains muscle tissue, connective
tissues, blood vessels, and nerves 339
Organization of Connective Tissues and Muscle
Tissue 339
Function of Skeletal Muscle Components 339
10-3 Skeletal muscle fibers are organized into repeating
functional units that contain sliding filaments 340
The Sarcolemma and Transverse Tubules 341
The Sarcoplasmic Reticulum 342
Myofibrils 342
Sarcomeres 343
The Sliding-Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction 347
10-4 Motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscle fibers to
contract at the neuromuscular junction 348
Electrical Impulses and Excitable Membranes 348
The Control of Skeletal Muscle Activity 349
10-5 Muscle fibers produce different amounts of tension
depending on sarcomere length and frequency of
stimulation 357
Length–Tension Relationships 357
Frequency of Stimulation 358
10-6 Skeletal muscles produce increased tension by
recruiting additional motor units 361
Motor Units 361
Types of Muscle Contractions 362
Load and Speed of Contraction 364
Muscle Relaxation and the Return to Resting
Length 365
10-7 To maintain regular muscle fiber activity, energy and
recovery are required 365
ATP Generation and Muscle Fiber Contraction 365
Muscle Metabolism and Varying Activity Levels 366
The Recovery Period 368
Hormones and Muscle Metabolism 369
10-8 Muscle performance depends on muscle fiber type
and physical conditioning 369
Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers 369
Muscle Performance and the Distribution of Muscle
Fibers 369
Muscle Hypertrophy, Atrophy, and Effects of Aging 371
Muscle Fatigue 371
Physical Conditioning 372
10-9 Cardiac muscle tissue, found in the heart, produces
coordinated and automatic contractions 373
Structural Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 373
Functional Characteristics of Cardiac Muscle Tissue 374
10-10 Smooth muscle tissue contracts to move substances
within internal passageways 375
Structural Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 375
Functional Characteristics of Smooth Muscle Tissue 375
Chapter Review 378
SmartArt Videos
Figure 10–17 The Arrangement and Activity of Motor Units in a Skeletal
Muscle. 361
Figure 10–20 Muscle Metabolism. 367
Spotlights
Events at the Neuromuscular Junction 350
Excitation–Contraction Coupling 352
The Contraction Cycle and Cross-Bridge Formation 354
Clinical Case
Keep on Keepin’ on 338
Clinical Notes
Tetanus 353
Rigor Mortis 353
Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness 372
Electromyography 376
11 The Muscular
System 382
An Introduction to the Muscular System 383
11-1 Fascicle arrangement is correlated with
muscle power and range of motion 383
Parallel Muscles 383
Convergent Muscles 383
Pennate Muscles 383
Circular Muscles 384
11-2 The use of bones as levers increases muscle
efficiency 385
11-3 The origins and insertions of muscles determine their
actions 385
Origins and Insertions 385
Actions 387
11-4 Descriptive terms are used to name skeletal
muscles 389
Region of the Body 389
Position, Direction, or Fascicle Arrangement 392
Structural Characteristics 392
Action 392
11-5 Axial muscles position the axial skeleton, and
appendicular muscles support and move the
appendicular skeleton 392
11-6 Axial muscles are muscles of the head and neck,
vertebral column, trunk, and pelvic floor 393
Muscles of the Head and Neck 393
Muscles of the Vertebral Column 400
Oblique and Rectus Muscles and the Diaphragm 404
Muscles of the Pelvic Floor 407
11-7 Appendicular muscles are muscles of the shoulders,
upper limbs, pelvis, and lower limbs 408
Muscles of the Shoulders and Upper Limbs 409
Muscles of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs 419
11-8 Exercise of the muscular system produces responses
in multiple body systems 429
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the MUSCULAR systems with the other body systems
presented so far 430
Chapter Review 431
Spotlights
Muscle Action 388
Clinical Case
Downward-Facing Dog 383
Clinical Notes
Intramuscular Injections 399
Signs of Stroke 401
Hernia 426
UNIT 3 CONTROL AND REGULATION
12 Nervous Tissue 435
An Introduction to the Nervous System and
Nervous Tissue 436
12-1 The nervous system has anatomical
and functional divisions 436
The Anatomical Divisions of the Nervous System 436
The Functional Divisions of the Nervous System 437
12-2 Neurons are nerve cells specialized for intercellular
communication 438
Functional Characteristics of Neurons 438
The Structure of Neurons 438
The Classification of Neurons 440
12-3 CNS and PNS neuroglia support and protect
neurons 441
Neuroglia of the Central Nervous System 441
Neuroglia of the Peripheral Nervous System 445
Neural Responses to Injuries 445
12-4 The membrane potential of a neuron is determined
by differences in ion concentrations and membrane
permeability 448
The Resting Membrane Potential 448
Changes in the Resting Membrane Potential: Membrane
Channels 451
Graded Potentials 453
12-5 An action potential is an all-or-none electrical event
used for long-distance communication 455
Threshold and the All-or-None Principle 455
Generation of Action Potentials 455
Propagation of Action Potentials 458
Axon Diameter and Propagation Speed 462
12-6 Synapses transmit signals among neurons or
between neurons and other cells 462
Types of Synapses 462
Function of Chemical Synapses 463
12-7 The effects of neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators depend on their receptors 466
Classes of Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators 466
The Functions of Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators
and Their Receptors 467
12-8 Individual neurons process information by integrating
excitatory and inhibitory stimuli 470
Postsynaptic Potentials 471
Presynaptic Regulation: Inhibition and Facilitation 473
The Rate of Action Potential Generation 473
Chapter Review 474
Spotlights
Processes That Produce the Resting Membrane Potential 449
Generation of an Action Potential 456
Propagation of an Action Potential 460
Clinical Case
Did President Franklin D. Roosevelt Really Have Polio? 436
Clinical Notes
Rabies 439
CNS Tumors 444
Demyelination 445
13 The Spinal Cord, Spinal
Nerves, and Spinal
Reflexes 479
An Introduction to the Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Spinal
Reflexes 480
13-1 This text’s coverage of the nervous system parallels
its simple-to-complex levels of organization 480
13-2 The spinal cord is surrounded by three meninges and
has spinal nerve roots 481
Gross Anatomy of the Spinal Cord 481
Protection of the Spinal Cord: Spinal Meninges 484
13-3 Spinal cord gray matter integrates information
and initiates commands, and white matter carries
information from place to place 486
Functional Organization of Gray Matter 486
Functional Organization of White Matter 486
13-4 Spinal nerves extend to form peripheral nerves,
sometimes forming plexuses along the way; these
nerves carry sensory and motor information 488
Anatomy of Spinal Nerves 488
Peripheral Distribution and Function of Spinal Nerves 488
Nerve Plexuses 493
13-5 Interneurons are organized into functional groups
called neuronal pools 498
13-6 The different types of neural reflexes are all rapid,
automatic responses to stimuli 499
The Reflex Arc 499
Classification of Reflexes 502
13-7 Monosynaptic reflexes produce simple responses,
while polysynaptic reflexes can produce complex
behaviors 503
Monosynaptic Reflexes 503
Polysynaptic Reflexes 505
13-8 The brain can affect spinal cord–based
reflexes 506
Voluntary Movements and Reflex Motor Patterns 506
Reinforcement and Inhibition 506
Chapter Review 507
SmartArt Videos
Figure 13–1 An Overview of Chapters 13 and 14. 481
Spotlights
Structure, Function, and the Peripheral Distribution of Spinal Nerves
(T1–L2) 490
Spinal Reflexes 500
Clinical Case
Prom Night 480
Clinical Notes
Anesthesia 485
Shingles 489
Sensory Innervation in the Hand 494
Sensory Innervation in the Ankle and Foot 497
14 The Brain and Cranial
Nerves 511
An Introduction to the Brain and Cranial Nerves 512
14-1 The brain develops four major regions: the cerebrum,
cerebellum, diencephalon, and brainstem 512
Major Brain Regions and Landmarks 512
Embryology of the Brain 514
Ventricles of the Brain 514
14-2 The brain is protected and supported by the cranial
meninges, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood brain
barrier 515
The Cranial Meninges 515
Cerebrospinal Fluid 517
The Protective Function of the Cranial Meninges and
CSF 519
The Blood Supply to the Brain 519
The Blood Brain Barrier 519
14-3 Brainstem: The medulla oblongata relays signals
between the rest of the brain and the spinal
cord 520
14-4 Brainstem: The pons contains nuclei that process and
tracts that relay sensory and motor information 523
14-5 Brainstem: The midbrain regulates visual and auditory
reflexes and controls alertness 524
14-6 The cerebellum coordinates reflexive and learned
patterns of muscular activity at the subconscious
level 524
Structure of the Cerebellum 524
Functions of the Cerebellum 524
14-7 The diencephalon integrates sensory information with
motor output at the subconscious level 527
The Thalamus 527
The Hypothalamus 528
14-8 The limbic system is a group of nuclei and tracts that
functions in emotion, motivation, and memory 530
14-9 The cerebrum contains motor, sensory, and
association areas, allowing for higher mental
functions 532
Structure of the Cerebral Cortex and Cerebral
Hemispheres 532
The White Matter of the Cerebrum 532
The Basal Nuclei 534
Motor, Sensory, and Association Areas of the Cortex 536
Integrative Centers and Higher Mental Functions 538
Monitoring Brain Activity: The Electroencephalogram 539
14-10 Cranial reflexes are rapid, automatic responses
involving sensory and motor fibers of cranial
nerves 552
Chapter Review 553
Spotlights
Formation and Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid 518
Clinical Case
The Neuroanatomist’s Stroke 512
Clinical Notes
Epidural and Subdural Hemorrhages 517
Aphasia and Dyslexia 539
Concussion and Beyond 552
15 Sensory Pathways and
the Somatic Nervous
System 558
An Introduction to Sensory Pathways and the Somatic
Nervous System 559
15-1 Sensory stimuli cause signals to be sent along
sensory pathways, and in response motor commands
are sent along motor pathways 559
15-2 Sensory receptors connect our internal and external
environments with the nervous system 560
The Detection of Stimuli 561
The Interpretation of Sensory Information 561
15-3 General sensory receptors can be classified by the
type of stimulus that excites them 563
Nociceptors and Pain 563
Thermoreceptors 564
Mechanoreceptors 564
Chemoreceptors 567
15-4 The afferent division is made up of separate somatic
sensory and visceral sensory pathways that deliver
sensory information to the CNS 568
Somatic Sensory Pathways 568
Visceral Sensory Pathways 573
15-5 The somatic nervous system is an efferent division
made up of somatic motor pathways that control
skeletal muscles 573
The Corticospinal Pathway 574
The Medial and Lateral Pathways 576
The Monitoring Role of the Basal Nuclei and
Cerebellum 576
Chapter Review 578
Spotlights
Somatic Sensory Pathways 570
Clinical Case
Living with Cerebral Palsy 559
Clinical Notes
Assessment of Tactile Sensitivities 569
Phantom Limb Syndrome 572
Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis 576
16 The Autonomic Nervous
System and Higher-Order
Functions 581
An Introduction to the Autonomic Nervous System and
Higher-Order Functions 582
16-1 The autonomic nervous system, which has
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, is
involved in the unconscious regulation of visceral
functions 582
Comparison of the Somatic and Autonomic Nervous
Systems 582
Organization of the ANS 583
Divisions of the ANS 584
16-2 The sympathetic division has short preganglionic
fibers and long postganglionic fibers and is involved
in using energy and increasing metabolic rate 584
Functional Organization of the Sympathetic Division 584
Sympathetic Activation 589
16-3 Different types of neurotransmitters and receptors
lead to different sympathetic effects 589
Effects of Sympathetic Stimulation of Adrenergic Synapses
and Receptors 590
Effects of Sympathetic Stimulation on Other Types of
Synapses 591
16-4 The parasympathetic division has long preganglionic
fibers and short postganglionic fibers and is involved
in conserving energy and lowering metabolic
rate 591
Functional Organization of the Parasympathetic
Division 591
Parasympathetic Activation 592
16-5 Different types of receptors lead to different
parasympathetic effects 592
Effects of Parasympathetic Stimulation of Cholinergic
Receptors 592
Effects of Toxins on Cholinergic Receptors 592
16-6 The differences in the organization of sympathetic
and parasympathetic structures lead to widespread
sympathetic effects and specific parasympathetic
effects 593
Summary of the Sympathetic Division 594
Summary of the Parasympathetic Division 594
16-7 Dual innervation of organs allows the sympathetic
and parasympathetic divisions to coordinate vital
functions 594
Anatomy of Dual Innervation 595
Autonomic Tone 597
16-8 Various levels of autonomic regulation allow for the
integration and control of autonomic functions 597
Visceral Reflexes 597
Higher Levels of Autonomic Control 598
The Integration of ANS and SNS Activities 598
16-9 Higher-order functions include memory and states
of consciousness, and neurotransmitters influence
behavior 599
Memory 600
States of Consciousness 602
Influence of Neurotransmitters on Brain Chemistry and
Behavior 604
16-10 Aging produces various structural and functional
changes in the nervous system 604
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the NERVOUS system with the other body systems presented
so far 606
Chapter Review 607
Spotlights
The Autonomic Nervous System 586
Clinical Case
Remember Me? 582
Clinical Notes
Insomnia 602
Summary of Nervous System Disorders 604
Fainting 605
17 The Special Senses 611
An Introduction to the Special Senses 612
17-1 Olfaction, the sense of smell, involves
olfactory receptors responding to
airborne chemical stimuli 612
Anatomy of the Olfactory Organs 612
Olfactory Receptors and the Physiology of Olfaction 613
Olfactory Pathways 613
Olfactory Discrimination 616
17-2 Gustation, the sense of taste, involves gustatory
receptors responding to dissolved chemical
stimuli 616
Anatomy of Papillae and Taste Buds 616
Gustatory Receptors 616
Gustatory Pathways 616
Gustatory Discrimination and Physiology of
Gustation 617
17-3 Internal eye structures contribute to vision, while
accessory eye structures provide protection 618
Accessory Structures of the Eye 618
Anatomy of the Eyeball 620
17-4 The focusing of light on the retina leads to the
formation of a visual image 627
An Introduction to Light 627
Image Formation and Reversal 628
Visual Acuity 628
17-5 Photoreceptors transduce light into electrical signals
that are then processed in the visual cortex 629
Physiology of Vision 629
The Visual Pathways 635
17-6 Equilibrium sensations monitor head position and
movement, while hearing involves the detection and
interpretation of sound waves 638
Anatomy of the Ear 638
Equilibrium 641
Hearing 644
Chapter Review 652
Spotlights
Olfaction and Gustation 614
Refractive Problems 630
Photoreception 632
Clinical Case
A Chance to See 612
Clinical Notes
Diabetic Retinopathy 623
Detached Retina 625
Glaucoma 626
Motion Sickness 645
18 The Endocrine
System 656
An Introduction to the Endocrine System 657
18-1 Homeostasis is preserved through intercellular
communication by the nervous and endocrine
systems 657
Mechanisms of Intercellular Communication 657
Comparison of Endocrine and Nervous
Communication 658
18-2 The endocrine system regulates physiological
processes by releasing bloodborne hormones that
bind to receptors on remote target organs 659
Overview of Endocrine Organs and Tissues 659
Classes of Hormones 659
Transport and Inactivation of Hormones 659
Mechanisms of Hormone Action 660
Control of Hormone Secretion 664
18-3 The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces
and releases hormones under hypothalamic control,
while the posterior lobe releases hypothalamic
hormones 665
Anatomy of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland 665
Control of Pituitary Activity by the Hypothalamus 666
The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 667
The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland 671
Summary: The Hormones of the Pituitary Gland 672
18-4 The thyroid gland synthesizes thyroid hormones that
affect the rate of metabolism 673
Anatomy of the Thyroid Gland 674
Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones 674
Functions of Thyroid Hormones 677
Synthesis and Functions of Calcitonin 677
18-5 The four parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid
hormone, which increases the blood calcium ion
level 678
18-6 The paired adrenal glands secrete several
hormones that affect electrolyte balance and stress
responses 680
Anatomy of the Adrenal Glands 680
Corticosteroids of the Adrenal Cortex 680
Catecholamines of the Adrenal Medulla 682
18-7 The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which affects
the circadian rhythm 683
18-8 The pancreas is both an exocrine organ and an
endocrine gland that produces hormones affecting
the blood glucose level 683
Anatomy of the Pancreas 684
Functions of Pancreatic Islet Cells 684
Hormones That Regulate the Blood Glucose Level 684
Diabetes Mellitus 687
18-9 Many organs have secondary endocrine
functions 687
The Intestines 687
The Kidneys 687
The Heart 690
The Thymus 690
The Gonads 690
Adipose Tissue 692
18-10 Hormones interact over our lifetime to produce
coordinated physiological responses 692
Role of Hormones in Growth 693
The Hormonal Responses to Stress 693
The Effects of Hormones on Behavior 693
Aging and Hormone Production 693
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the ENDOCRINE system with the other body systems
presented so far 696
Chapter Review 697
SmartArt Videos
Figure 18–16 Anatomy of the Pancreas. 684
Spotlights
Structural Classification of Hormones 661
G Proteins and Second Messengers 663
Diabetes Mellitus 688
The General Adaptation Syndrome 694
Clinical Case
Stones, Bones, and Groans 657
Clinical Notes
Diabetes Insipidus 671
Endocrine Disorders 691
Hormones and Athletic Performance 695
UNIT 4 FLUIDS AND TRANSPORT
19 Blood 702
An Introduction to Blood and the Cardiovascular
System 703
19-1 Blood, composed of plasma and formed elements,
provides transport, regulation, and protective
services to the body 703
Functions of Blood 703
Characteristics of Blood 704
Components of Blood 704
19-2 Red blood cells, formed by erythropoiesis, contain
hemoglobin that transports respiratory gases 705
Abundance of RBCs: The Hematocrit 705
Relationship of RBC Structure to RBC Function 705
Hemoglobin 708
RBC Formation and Turnover 710
19-3 The ABO and Rh blood groups are based on antigen–
antibody responses 712
ABO and Rh Blood Groups 712
Transfusions 715
19-4 The various types of white blood cells contribute to
the body’s defenses 716
WBC Characteristics and Functions 717
Types of WBCs 717
The Differential Count and Changes in WBC Profiles 721
WBC Production: Leukopoiesis 721
Regulation of WBC Production 722
19-5 Platelets, disc-shaped cell fragments, function in the
clotting process 724
Platelet Functions 724
Platelet Production 724
19-6 The process of blood clotting, or hemostasis, stops
blood loss 724
The Vascular Phase 725
The Platelet Phase 725
The Coagulation Phase 725
Clot Retraction 729
Fibrinolysis 729
Chapter Review 729
Spotlights
The Composition of Whole Blood 706
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn 718
Clinical Case
Crisis in the Blood 703
Clinical Notes
Plasma Expanders 704
Collecting Blood for Analysis 705
Bleeding and Clotting Extremes 728
20 The Heart 734
An Introduction to the Heart as Part of the Cardiovascular
System 735
20-1 The heart is a four-chambered organ that pumps
blood through the systemic and pulmonary
circuits 735
Overview of Heart Function: The Pulmonary and Systemic
Circuits 735
Heart Location and Position 736
Heart Superficial Anatomy, Heart Wall, and Cardiac
Skeleton 736
Heart Chambers, Valves, and Great Vessels 740
Blood Flow through the Heart Valves 743
The Blood Supply to the Heart 743
20-2 The cells of the conducting system distribute
electrical impulses through the heart, causing cardiac
contractile cells to contract 748
Cardiac Physiology: Electrical Impulses Leading to the
Contractions Making Up a Heartbeat 748
The Conducting System: Pacemaker and Conducting
Cells 748
The Electrocardiogram (ECG) 751
Cardiac Contractions: Contractile Cells 753
20-3 The contraction–relaxation events that occur during a
complete heartbeat make up a cardiac cycle 757
An Introduction to Pressure and Flow in the Heart 757
Phases of the Cardiac Cycle 758
Pressure and Volume Changes in the Cardiac Cycle 759
Heart Sounds 761
20-4 Cardiac output is determined by heart rate and stroke
volume 762
Factors Affecting the Heart Rate 762
Factors Affecting the Stroke Volume 765
Summary: The Control of Cardiac Output 767
The Heart and the Vessels of the Cardiovascular System 768
Chapter Review 769
SmartArt Videos
Figure 20–16 Phases of the Cardiac Cycle. 758
Figure 20–19 Factors Affecting Cardiac Output. 762
Spotlights
Heart Disease and Heart Attacks 746
Cardiac Arrhythmias 754
Clinical Case
A Needle to the Chest 735
Clinical Notes
Faulty Heart Valves 743
Broken-Heart Syndrome 748
21 Blood Vessels and
Circulation 773
An Introduction to Blood Vessels and Circulation 774
21-1 Arteries, which are elastic or muscular, and veins,
which contain valves, have three-layered walls;
capillaries have thin walls with only one layer 774
Vessel Wall Structure in Arteries and Veins 774
Differences between Arteries and Veins 775
Arteries 776
Capillaries 779
Veins 781
The Distribution of Blood 782
21-2 Pressure and resistance determine blood flow and
affect rates of capillary exchange 783
Introduction to Pressure and Flow in Blood Vessels 783
Pressures Affecting Blood Flow 783
Total Peripheral Resistance 783
An Overview of Cardiovascular Pressures 785
Capillary Exchange and Capillary Pressures 788
21-3 Blood flow and pressure in tissues are controlled by
both autoregulation and central regulation 791
Vasomotion 791
Overview of Autoregulation and Central Regulation 791
Autoregulation of Blood Flow within Tissues 791
Central Regulation: Neural Mechanisms 793
Central Regulation: Endocrine Mechanisms 796
21-4 The cardiovascular system adapts to physiological
stress while maintaining a special vascular supply to
the brain, heart, and lungs 798
Vascular Supply to Special Regions 798
The Cardiovascular Response to Exercise 799
The Cardiovascular Response to Hemorrhaging and
Shock 801
21-5 The vessels of the cardiovascular system make up
both pulmonary and systemic circuits 802
21-6 In the pulmonary circuit, deoxygenated blood enters
the lungs in arteries, and oxygenated blood leaves the
lungs by veins 803
21-7 The systemic circuit carries oxygenated blood from
the left ventricle to tissues and organs other than the
lungs, and returns deoxygenated blood to the right
atrium 804
Systemic Arteries 804
The Ascending Aorta 804
The Aortic Arch 804
Systemic Veins 812
21-8 Modifications of fetal and maternal cardiovascular
systems promote the exchange of materials; the
fetal cardiovascular system changes to function
independently after birth 821
Fetal Circulatory Route and Placental Blood Supply 821
Fetal Heart and Great Vessels 821
Cardiovascular Changes at Birth 822
21-9 Aging affects the blood, heart, and blood vessels 824
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the CARDIOVASCULAR system with the other body systems
presented so far 825
Chapter Review 826
Spotlights
Congenital Heart Problems 823
Clinical Case
Did Ancient Mummies Have Atherosclerosis? 774
Clinical Notes
Arteriosclerosis 778
Varicose Veins 782
Edema 790
Aortic Aneurysm 809
Preparing the Circulation for Dialysis 816
22 The Lymphatic System
and Immunity 831
An Introduction to the Lymphatic System and
Immunity 832
22-1 The vessels, tissues, and organs of the lymphatic
system maintain fluid volume and function in body
defenses 832
Functions of the Lymphatic System 833
Lymphatic Vessels and Circulation of Lymph 833
Lymphoid Cells 836
Lymphoid Tissues 836
Lymphoid Organs 838
22-2 Lymphocytes are important to innate (nonspecific)
and adaptive (specific) immunity 842
Types of Immunity 842
Lymphocytes 843
22-3 Innate defenses respond the same regardless of the
invader 843
Physical Barriers 843
Phagocytes 846
Immune Surveillance 847
Interferons 848
Complement System 848
Inflammation 848
Fever 851
22-4 Adaptive (specific) defenses respond to particular
threats and are either cell mediated or antibody
mediated 851
Lymphocytes of Adaptive Immunity 851
Types of Adaptive Immunity 851
An Introduction to Adaptive Immunity 852
Forms of Adaptive Immunity 853
Properties of Adaptive Immunity 853
22-5 In cell-mediated adaptive immunity, presented
antigens activate T cells, which respond by producing
cytotoxic and helper T cells 855
Activation and Clonal Selection of T Cells 855
Functions of Activated CD8 T Cells 858
Functions of Activated CD4 T Cells: Helper T (TH) and
Memory TH Cells 859
Cytokines of Adaptive Defenses 859
Summary of Cell-Mediated Adaptive Immunity 859
22-6 In antibody-mediated adaptive immunity, sensitized
B cells respond to antigens by producing specific
antibodies 862
B Cell Sensitization and Activation 862
Antibody Structure and Function 863
Primary and Secondary Responses to Antigen Exposure 866
22-7 Immunocompetence enables a normal immune
response; abnormal responses result in immune
disorders 867
Summary of Innate and Adaptive Immunity 867
The Development of Immunocompetence 868
Stress and the Immune Response 871
Immune Disorders 871
22-8 The immune response diminishes as we age 873
22-9 The nervous and endocrine systems influence the
immune response 875
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the LYMPHATIC system with the other body systems
presented so far 874
Chapter Review 875
SmartArt Videos
Figure 22–17 Forms of Immunity. 854
Spotlights
Cytokines of the Immune System 860
Clinical Case
Isn’t There a Vaccine for That? 832
Clinical Notes
Lymphadenopathy 839
Lab Tests for Organ Donation 855
Organ Donation 857
AIDS 873
UNIT 5 ENVIRONMENTAL EXCHANGE
23 The Respiratory
System 880
An Introduction to the Respiratory System 881
23-1 The respiratory system, organized into an upper
respiratory system and a lower respiratory system,
functions primarily to aid gas exchange 881
Functions of the Respiratory System 881
Organization of the Respiratory System 881
The Respiratory Mucosa and the Respiratory Defense
System 882
23-2 The conducting portion of the upper respiratory
system filters, warms, and humidifies air 884
The Nose and Nasal Cavity 884
The Pharynx 885
23-3 The conducting portion of the lower respiratory
system conducts air to the respiratory portion and
produces sound 887
The Larynx 887
Sound Production 889
The Trachea 889
The Bronchial Tree 890
23-4 The respiratory portion of the lower respiratory
system is where gas exchange occurs 892
The Respiratory Bronchioles 892
Alveolar Ducts and Alveoli 892
The Blood Air Barrier 894
23-5 Enclosed by pleural cavities, the lungs are paired
organs made up of multiple lobes 894
Anatomy of the Lungs 894
Blood Supply to the Lungs 896
Pleural Cavities and Pleural Membranes 896
23-6 External respiration and internal respiration allow gas
exchange within the body 897
23-7 Pulmonary ventilation—air exchange between the
atmosphere and the lungs—involves muscle actions
and volume changes that cause pressure changes 898
An Introduction to Airflow 898
Overview of Pulmonary Ventilation: Volume Changes and
Pressure Gradients 899
Actions of the Respiratory Muscles 899
Volume Changes in Pulmonary Ventilation 901
Pressure Gradients in Pulmonary Ventilation 901
Summary of Volume Changes and Pressure Gradients
during a Respiratory Cycle 903
Physical Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation 903
Measuring Respiratory Rates and Volumes 903
23-8 Gas exchange depends on the partial pressures of
gases and the diffusion of gas molecules 906
An Introduction to the Diffusion of Gases 906
Diffusion of Gases across the Blood Air Barrier 907
Summary of Gas Exchange 908
Internal Respiration 909
23-9 In gas transport, most oxygen is transported bound to
hemoglobin, whereas carbon dioxide is transported in
three ways 910
Oxygen Transport 910
Carbon Dioxide Transport 913
Summary of Gas Transport 914
23-10 Respiratory centers in the brainstem, along with
respiratory reflexes, control respiration 914
Local Regulation of Oxygen Delivery and Ventilation-to-
Perfusion Ratio 914
Neural Control of Respiration 915
23-11 Respiratory performance changes over the life
span 922
Changes in the Respiratory System in Newborns 922
Changes in the Respiratory System in Elderly Individuals 922
23-12 The respiratory system provides oxygen to, and
eliminates carbon dioxide from, other organ
systems 923
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the RESPIRATORY system with the other body systems
presented so far 924
Chapter Review 925
SmartArt Videos
Figure 23–18 A Summary of Respiratory Processes and Partial Pressures in
Respiration. 909
Spotlights
Pulmonary Ventilation 900
Control of Respiration 918
Clinical Case
No Rest for the Weary 881
Clinical Notes
Breakdown of the Respiratory Defense System 884
Pneumothorax 902
Decompression Sickness 908
Blood Gas Analysis 908
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 913
Smoking and the Lungs 923
24 The Digestive
System 930
An Introduction to the Digestive System 931
24-1 The digestive system, consisting of the digestive tract
and accessory organs, functions primarily to break
down and absorb nutrients from food and to eliminate
wastes 931
Functions and Processes of the Digestive System 931
Relationship between the Digestive Organs and the
Peritoneum: The Mesenteries 933
Histology of the Digestive Tract 935
Motility of the Digestive Tract 936
Regulation of Digestive Functions 937
24-2 The oral cavity, which contains the tongue, teeth,
and salivary glands, functions in the ingestion and
mechanical digestion of food 939
The Oral Cavity 939
The Tongue 940
The Teeth 940
The Salivary Glands 942
Mechanical Digestion: Mastication (Chewing) 944
24-3 The pharynx and esophagus are passageways that
transport the food bolus from the oral cavity to the
stomach 944
The Pharynx 944
The Esophagus 944
Ingestion: Deglutition (Swallowing) 946
24-4 The stomach is a J-shaped organ that receives
the bolus and aids in its chemical and mechanical
digestion 947
Gross Anatomy of the Stomach 947
Histology of the Stomach 947
Secretory Glands and Gastric Secretions 949
Physiology of the Stomach: Chemical Digestion 951
Regulation of Gastric Activity in Phases of Digestion 951
24-5 Accessory digestive organs, such as the pancreas
and liver, produce secretions that aid in chemical
digestion 951
The Pancreas 954
The Liver 955
The Gallbladder 960
24-6 The small intestine primarily functions in the chemical
digestion and absorption of nutrients 961
Gross Anatomy of the Small Intestine 961
Histology of the Small Intestine 961
Physiology of the Small Intestine 964
Regulation: Coordination of Secretion and Absorption in
the Digestive Tract 964
24-7 The large intestine, which is divided into three
parts, absorbs water from digestive materials and
eliminates the remaining waste as feces 967
Gross Anatomy and Segments of the Large Intestine 967
Histology of the Large Intestine 969
Physiology of the Large Intestine 969
24-8 Chemical digestion is the enzyme-mediated
hydrolysis of food into nutrients that can be absorbed
and used by the body 972
Hydrolysis of Nutrients by Enzymes 972
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption 973
Lipid Digestion and Absorption 975
Protein Digestion and Absorption 976
Nucleic Acid Digestion and Absorption 976
Absorption of Water, Ions, and Vitamins 976
24-9 Many age-related changes affect digestion and
absorption 977
24-10 The digestive system is extensively integrated with
other body systems 978
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the DIGESTIVE system with the other body systems presented
so far 979
Chapter Review 980
SmartArt Videos
Figure 24–18 Histology of the Liver. 957
Spotlights
The Regulation of Gastric Activity 952
The Chemical Events of Digestion 974
Clinical Case
An Unusual Transplant 931
Clinical Notes
Peritonitis 933
Epithelial Renewal and Repair 936
Mumps 943
Gastritis and Peptic Ulcers 949
Pancreatitis 955
Cirrhosis 956
Colorectal Cancer 969
Colonoscopy 972
25 Metabolism, Nutrition,
and Energetics 985
An Introduction to Metabolism, Nutrition, and
Energetics 986
25-1 Metabolism is the sum of all the catabolic and
anabolic reactions in the body, and energetics is the
flow and transformation of energy 986
Metabolism 986
Energetics 988
Oxidation and Reduction 988
25-2 Carbohydrate metabolism generates ATP by
glucose catabolism and forms glucose by
gluconeogenesis 989
Overview of Glucose Catabolism 989
Glucose Catabolism: Glycolysis 989
Glucose Catabolism: Fate of Pyruvate 989
Glucose Catabolism: Aerobic Metabolism 990
Glucose Catabolism: Energy Yield of Glycolysis and
Aerobic Metabolism 994
Glucose Anabolism: Gluconeogenesis 996
25-3 Lipid metabolism provides long-term storage and
release of energy 997
Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis 997
Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis 999
Lipid Storage and Energy Release 999
Lipid Transport and Distribution 999
25-4 Protein metabolism provides amino acids and
synthesizes proteins 1002
Amino Acid Catabolism 1002
Protein Synthesis 1002
25-5 The body experiences two patterns of metabolic
activity: energy storage in the absorptive state and
energy release in the postabsorptive state 1003
25-6 Adequate nutrition allows normal physiological
functioning 1005
Food Groups and a Balanced Diet 1005
Nitrogen Balance 1008
The Role of Minerals and Vitamins 1008
25-7 Metabolic rate is the average caloric expenditure, and
thermoregulation involves balancing heat-producing
and heat-losing mechanisms 1012
Energy Gains and Losses 1012
Thermoregulation 1013
Chapter Review 1018
Spotlights
The Electron Transport Chain and ATP Formation 993
Absorptive and Postabsorptive States 1006
Clinical Case
The Miracle Supplement 986
Clinical Notes
Carbohydrate Loading 997
Dietary Fats and Cholesterol 1001
Blood Testing for Fat 1001
Vitamins 1011
Alcohol by the Numbers 1011
Alcohol and Disease 1011
Anorexia 1012
Superfoods 1012
Hypothermia in the Operating Room 1016
Excess Body Heat 1017
Deficient Body Heat 1017
26 The Urinary
System 1022
An Introduction to the Urinary System 1023
26-1 The organs of the urinary system
function in excreting wastes and
regulating body fluids 1023
Organs of the Urinary System 1023
Urinary System Functions 1024
26-2 Kidneys are highly vascular organs containing
functional units called nephrons 1024
Position and Associated Structures of the Kidneys 1024
Gross Anatomy of the Kidneys 1025
Blood Supply and Innervation of the Kidneys 1026
Microscopic Anatomy of the Kidneys: The Nephron and
Collecting System 1028
26-3 Different segments of the nephron form urine by
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion 1033
Metabolic Wastes 1033
Basic Processes of Urine Formation 1033
26-4 The glomerulus filters blood through the filtration
membrane to produce filtrate; several pressures
determine the glomerular filtration rate 1035
Function of the Filtration Membrane 1035
Filtration Pressures 1035
The Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) 1036
Regulation of the GFR 1037
26-5 The renal tubule reabsorbs nutrients, ions, and water
and secretes ions and wastes; the collecting system
reabsorbs ions and water 1039
Principles of Reabsorption and Secretion 1039
An Overview of Reabsorbed and Secreted
Substances 1040
Reabsorption and Secretion along the PCT 1041
Reabsorption and Secretion along the Nephron
Loop 1041
Reabsorption and Secretion along the DCT 1043
Reabsorption and Secretion along the Collecting
System 1046
26-6 Countercurrent multiplication allows the kidneys to
regulate the volume and concentration of
urine 1047
The Nephron Loop and Countercurrent
Multiplication 1047
Regulation of Urine Volume and Osmotic Concentration:
Production of Dilute and Concentrated
Urine 1049
The Function of the Vasa Recta: Countercurrent
Exchange 1051
Urine Composition and Analysis 1051
26-7 Urine is transported by the ureters, stored in the
bladder, and eliminated through the urethra by urinary
reflexes 1055
The Ureters 1055
The Urinary Bladder 1056
The Urethra 1057
Urinary Reflexes: Urine Storage and Urine Voiding 1058
26-8 Age-related changes affect kidney function and
urination 1059
26-9 The urinary system is one of several body systems
involved in waste excretion 1060
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the URINARY system with the other body systems presented
so far 1061
Chapter Review 1062
SmartArt Videos
Figure 26–8 The Locations and Structures of Cortical and Juxtamedullary
Nephrons. 1031
Spotlights
Summary of Renal Function 1052
Clinical Case
A Case of “Hidden” Bleeding 1023
Clinical Notes
Glomerulonephritis 1030
Diuretics 1046
Urinary Obstruction 1059
Renal Failure and Kidney Transplant 1060
27 Fluid, Electrolyte, and
Acid-Base
Balance 1067
An Introduction to Fluid, Electrolyte,
and Acid-Base Balance 1068
27-1 Fluid balance, electrolyte balance,
and acid-base balance are interrelated and essential
to homeostasis 1068
27-2 Extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid
(ICF) are fluid compartments with differing solute
concentrations that are closely regulated 1069
Body Water Content 1069
The Fluid Compartments of the ECF and ICF 1069
Solute Exchanges between the ECF and the ICF 1070
An Overview of the Regulation of Fluid and Electrolyte
Balance 1071
27-3 Fluid balance involves the regulation and distribution
of water gains and losses 1073
Fluid Gains and Losses 1073
Water Movement between Fluid Compartments 1074
Fluid Shifts between the ECF and ICF 1074
27-4 In electrolyte balance, the concentrations of sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, and
chloride ions in body fluids are tightly regulated 1076
Sodium Balance 1076
Potassium Balance 1079
Balance of Other Electrolytes 1080
27-5 In acid-base balance, buffer systems as well as
respiratory and renal compensation regulate pH
changes in body fluids 1082
Types of Acids in the Body 1082
Mechanisms of pH Control: Buffer Systems 1082
Regulation of Acid-Base Balance 1087
27-6 Disorders of acid-base balance can be classified as respiratory or metabolic 1088
Respiratory Acid-Base Disorders 1091
Metabolic Acid-Base Disorders 1092
Combined Respiratory and Metabolic Acidosis 1095
The Detection of Acidosis and Alkalosis 1095
27-7 Aging affects fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance 1095
Chapter Review 1097
Spotlights
The Diagnosis of Acid-Base Disorders 1096
Clinical Case
When Treatment Makes You Worse 1068
Clinical Notes
Water and Weight Loss 1075
Athletes and Salt Loss 1079
Sports Drinks 1079
UNIT 6 CONTINUITY OF LIFE
28 The Reproductive System 1101
An Introduction to the Reproductive System 1102
28-1 Male and female reproductive system structures produce gametes that combine to form a new individual 1102
28-2 The structures of the male reproductive system consist of the testes, duct system, accessory glands, and penis
1103
The Testes and Associated Structures 1103
Functional Anatomy of the Male Reproductive Duct System 1105
The Accessory Glands 1107
Semen 1109
The Penis 1109
28-3 Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes, and hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and testes
control male reproductive functions 1111
Overview of Mitosis and Meiosis 1111
Spermatogenesis 1113
Maturation of Sperm 1116
The Anatomy of a Sperm 1116
Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function 1116
28-4 The structures of the female reproductive system consist of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and
external genitalia 1118
The Ovaries 1119
The Uterine Tubes 1120
The Uterus 1121
The Vagina 1124
The Female External Genitalia 1126
The Breasts 1126
28-5 Oogenesis occurs in the ovaries, and hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries control
female reproductive functions 1128
Oogenesis 1128
The Ovarian Cycle 1131
The Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle 1132
Hormonal Coordination of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles 1133
28-6 The autonomic nervous system influences male and female sexual function 1137
Human Sexual Function 1137
Contraception and Infertility 1138
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) 1139
28-7 Changes in levels of reproductive hormones cause functional changes throughout the life span 1139
Development of the Genitalia 1139
Effects of Aging 1140
28-8 The reproductive system secretes hormones affecting growth and metabolism of all body systems 1142
Build Your Knowledge
Integration of the REPRODUCTIVE system with the other body systems presented so far 1143
Chapter Review 1144
Spotlights
Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproduction 1117
Hormonal Regulation of Female Reproduction 1134
Clinical Case
And Baby Makes Three? 1102
Clinical Notes
Circumcision 1111
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) 1116
Enlarged Prostate 1118
Prostate Cancer 1118
Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Testing 1118
Ovarian Cancer 1121
Pap Smear 1123
Fibrocystic Disease and Breast Cancer 1127
Laparoscopy 1128
Mammoplasty 1128
29 Development and Inheritance 1149
An Introduction to Development and Inheritance 1150
29-1 Directed by inherited genes, a fertilized ovum differentiates during prenatal development to form an individual;
postnatal development brings that individual to maturity 1150
29-2 Fertilization—the fusion of a secondary oocyte and a sperm—forms a zygote 1151
The Secondary Oocyte and Sperm before Fertilization 1151
The Process of Fertilization 1151
Events after Fertilization 1152
29-3 Gestation consists of three stages of prenatal development: the first, second, and third trimesters 1153
29-4 The first trimester includes pre-embryonic and embryonic development, involving the processes of cleavage,
implantation, placentation, and embryogenesis 1153
The Pre-Embryonic Period 1154
The Embryonic Period 1155
29-5 During the second and third trimesters, fetal development involves growth and organ function 1161
29-6 During gestation, maternal organ systems support the developing fetus; the reproductive system undergoes
structural and functional changes 1163
Hormonal Regulation during Gestation 1166
Changes in Maternal Organ Systems 1167
29-7 Childbirth occurs through the process of labor, which consists of the dilation, expulsion, and placental stages
1169
Initiation of Labor 1169
The Stages of Labor 1169
Difficulties of Labor and Delivery and Multiple Births 1170
29-8 Postnatal stages are the neonatal period, infancy, childhood, adolescence, and maturity, followed by
senescence and death 1172
The Neonatal Period, Infancy, and Childhood 1173
Adolescence and Maturity 1176
Senescence and Death 1177
29-9 Genes and chromosomes determine patterns of inheritance 1177
Genotype and Phenotype 1177
Homologous Chromosomes and Alleles 1178
Autosomal Patterns of Inheritance 1178
Sex-Linked Patterns of Inheritance 1181
Sources of Individual Variation 1182
Effect of Environmental Factors: Penetrance and
Expressivity 1184
The Human Genome 1184
Chapter Review 1186
Spotlights
Extra-Embryonic Membranes and Placenta Formation 1158
Clinical Case
The Twins That Looked Nothing Alike 1150
Clinical Notes
Abortion 1169
C-Section 1172
Chromosomal Abnormalities 1183
Amniocentesis 1183
Answers to Checkpoints, Review Questions, and Clinical Case Wrap-Ups 1190
Appendices
Appendix A Normal Physiological Values 1237
Appendix B Gas Pressure Measurements and Cell Turnover Times 1239
Appendix C Codon Chart 1240
Appendix D Periodic Table of the Elements 1241
Glossary 1242
Credits 1261
Index 1263