Introductory Chemistry, Seventh Edition In Si Units
By Nivaldo J. Tro
Contents:
Preface 23
1 The Chemical World 28
1.1 Sand and Water 29
1.2 Chemicals Compose Ordinary Things 30
1.3 The Scientific Method: How Chemists Think 31
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Combustion and the
Scientific Method 33
1.4 Analyzing and Interpreting Data 34
Identifying Patterns in Data 34
Interpreting Graphs 35
1.5 A Beginning Chemist: How to Succeed 37
Self-Assessment Quiz 37
Key Terms 39
Exercises 39
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 41
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 41
2 Measurement and
Problem Solving 42
2.1 The Metric Mix-up: A $125 Million Unit Error 43
2.2 Scientific Notation: Writing Large and
Small Numbers 43
2.3 Significant Figures: Writing Numbers to
Reflect Precision 45
Counting Significant Figures 48
Exact Numbers 49
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The COBE Satellite
and Very Precise Measurements That Illuminate
Our Cosmic Past 50
2.4 Significant Figures in Calculations 50
Multiplication and Division 51
Rounding 51
Addition and Subtraction 52
Calculations Involving Both Multiplication/Division
and Addition/Subtraction 53
2.5 The Basic Units of Measurement 54
The Base Units 55
Prefix Multipliers 56
Derived Units 56
2.6 Problem Solving and Unit Conversion 57
Converting Between Units 57
General Problem-Solving Strategy 59
2.7 Solving Multistep Unit Conversion
Problems 61
2.8 Unit Conversion in Both the Numerator
and Denominator 63
2.9 Units Raised to a Power 65
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drug Dosage 65
2.10 Density 67
Calculating Density 68
Density as a Conversion Factor 69
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Density, Cholesterol,
and Heart Disease 70
2.11 Numerical Problem-Solving Strategies
and the Solution Map 71
Self-Assessment Quiz 73
Key Terms 79
Exercises 79
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 89
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 89
3 Matter and Energy 90
3.1 In Your Room 91
3.2 What Is Matter? 92
3.3 Classifying Matter According to Its State:
Solid, Liquid, and Gas 93
3.4 Classifying Matter According to Its Composition:
Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures 95
3.5 Differences in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Properties 98
3.6 Changes in Matter: Physical and
Chemical Changes 99
Separating Mixtures Through Physical
Changes 101
3.7 Conservation of Mass: There Is No New Matter 101
3.8 Energy 103
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Getting
Energy out of Nothing? 103
Units of Energy 104
3.9 Energy and Chemical and Physical Change 105
3.10 Temperature: Random Motion of
Molecules and Atoms 107
3.11 Temperature Changes: Heat Capacity 110
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Coolers, Camping,
and the Heat Capacity of Water 111
3.12 Energy and Heat Capacity Calculations 112
Self-Assessment Quiz 115
Key Terms 120
Exercises 121
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 129
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 129
4 Atoms and Elements 130
4.1 Experiencing Atoms at Tiburon 131
4.2 Indivisible: The Atomic Theory 132
4.3 The Nuclear Atom 133
4.4 The Properties of Protons, Neutrons,
and Electrons 135
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Solid Matter? 136
4.5 Elements: Defined by Their Numbers
of Protons 137
4.6 Looking for Patterns: The Periodic Law
and the Periodic Table 140
4.7 Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons 144
Ions and the Periodic Table 146
4.8 Isotopes: When the Number
of Neutrons Varies 147
4.9 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass
of an Element’s Atoms 150
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Radioactive
Isotopes at Hanford, Washington 151
Self-Assessment Quiz 153
Key Terms 156
Exercises 156
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 165
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 165
5 Molecules and
Compounds 166
5.1 Sugar and Salt 167
5.2 Compounds Display Constant
Composition 168
5.3 Chemical Formulas: How to Represent
Compounds 169
Polyatomic Ions in Chemical Formulas 171
Types of Chemical Formulas 172
5.4 A Molecular View of Elements and
Compounds 173
Atomic Elements 173
Molecular Elements 173
Molecular Compounds 173
Ionic Compounds 174
5.5 Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds 176
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Containing Only Monoatomic Ions 176
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Containing Polyatomic Ions 177
5.6 Nomenclature: Naming Compounds 178
5.7 Naming Ionic Compounds 178
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
Containing a Metal That Forms Only One
Type of Cation 178
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing
a Metal That Forms More Than One Type
of Cation 180
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing a
Polyatomic Ion 181
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Polyatomic Ions 182
5.8 Naming Molecular Compounds 183
5.9 Naming Acids 184
Naming Binary Acids 184
Naming Oxyacids 185
5.10 Nomenclature Summary 186
Ionic Compounds 186
Molecular Compounds 186
Acids 187
5.11 Formula Mass: The Mass of a Molecule
or Formula Unit 187
Self-Assessment Quiz 188
Key Terms 193
Exercises 193
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 201
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 201
6 Chemical Composition 202
6.1 How Much Sodium? 203
6.2 Counting Nails by the Kilogram 204
6.3 Counting Atoms by the Gram 205
Converting between Moles and Number
of Atoms 205
Converting between Grams and Moles
of an Element 206
Converting between Grams of an Element
and Number of Atoms 209
6.4 Counting Molecules by the Gram 210
Converting between Grams and Moles
of a Compound 210
Converting between Grams of a Compound
and Number of Molecules 212
6.5 Chemical Formulas as Conversion
Factors 213
Converting between Moles of a Compound
and Moles of a Constituent Element 214
Converting between Grams of a Compound
and Grams of a Constituent Element 215
6.6 Mass Percent Composition of Compounds 217
6.7 Mass Percent Composition from a
Chemical Formula 218
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fluoridation
of Drinking Water 220
6.8 Calculating Empirical Formulas for
Compounds 220
Calculating an Empirical Formula from
Experimental Data 221
6.9 Calculating Molecular Formulas for
Compounds 223
Self-Assessment Quiz 225
Key Terms 231
Exercises 231
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 239
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 239
7 Chemical Reactions 240
7.1 Grade School Volcanoes, Automobiles,
and Laundry Detergents 241
7.2 Evidence of a Chemical Reaction 242
7.3 The Chemical Equation 245
7.4 How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations 247
7.5 Aqueous Solutions and Solubility:
Compounds Dissolved in Water 250
Aqueous Solutions 250
Solubility 251
7.6 Precipitation Reactions: Reactions in
Aqueous Solution That Form a Solid 253
7.7 Writing Chemical Equations for Reactions
in Solution: Molecular, Complete Ionic, and
Net Ionic Equations 256
7.8 Acid–Base and Gas-Evolution Reactions 258
Acid–Base (Neutralization) Reactions 258
Gas-Evolution Reactions 259
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Neutralizing Excess
Stomach Acid 261
7.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 261
7.10 Classifying Chemical Reactions 263
Classifying Chemical Reactions by
What Atoms Do 264
Classification Flowchart 266
Self-Assessment Quiz 268
Key Terms 273
Exercises 273
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 281
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 281
8 Quantities in Chemical
Reactions 282
8.1 Climate Change: Too Much Carbon Dioxide 283
8.2 Making Pancakes: Relationships
between Ingredients 284
8.3 Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole
Conversions 285
8.4 Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass
Conversions 287
8.5 More Pancakes: Limiting Reactant,
Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield 290
8.6 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield,
and Percent Yield from Initial Masses
of Reactants 294
8.7 Enthalpy: A Measure of the Heat
Evolved or Absorbed in a Reaction 298
Sign of Hrxn _ 299
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Bunsen Burners 299
Stoichiometry of Hrxn _ 300
Self-Assessment Quiz 302
Key Terms 306
Exercises 307
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 317
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 317
9 Electrons in Atoms and
the Periodic Table 318
9.1 Blimps, Balloons, and Models of the Atom 319
9.2 Light: Electromagnetic Radiation 320
9.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 322
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Radiation Treatment
for Cancer 324
9.4 The Bohr Model: Atoms with Orbits 325
9.5 The Quantum-Mechanical Model: Atoms
with Orbitals 328
Baseball Paths and Electron Probability
Maps 328
From Orbits to Orbitals 329
9.6 Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals and
Electron Configurations 329
Quantum-Mechanical Orbitals 329
Electron Configurations: How Electrons
Occupy Orbitals 332
9.7 Electron Configurations and the
Periodic Table 336
9.8 The Explanatory Power of the
Quantum-Mechanical Model 339
9.9 Periodic Trends: Atomic Size, Ionization
Energy, and Metallic Character 341
Atomic Size 341
Ionization Energy 343
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Pumping Ions:
Atomic Size and Nerve Impulses 343
Metallic Character 344
Self-Assessment Quiz 347
Key Terms 350
Exercises 350
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 357
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 357
10 Chemical Bonding 358
10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs 359
10.2 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots 360
10.3 Lewis Structures of Ionic Compounds:
Electrons Transferred 361
10.4 Covalent Lewis Structures: Electrons Shared 362
Single Bonds 362
Double and Triple Bonds 363
10.5 Writing Lewis Structures for Covalent
Compounds 364
Writing Lewis Structures for
Polyatomic Ions 366
Exceptions to the Octet Rule 367
10.6 Resonance: Equivalent Lewis Structures
for the Same Molecule 368
10.7 Predicting the Shapes of Molecules 370
Representing Molecular Geometries
on Paper 373
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Fooled by
Molecular Shape 374
10.8 Electronegativity and Polarity: Why Oil
and Water Don’t Mix 375
Electronegativity 375
Polar Bonds and Polar Molecules 377
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY How Soap Works 379
Self-Assessment Quiz 380
Key Terms 383
Exercises 383
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 391
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 391
11 Gases 392
11.1 Extra-Long Straws 393
11.2 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model
for Gases 394
11.3 Pressure: The Result of Constant
Molecular Collisions 396
Pressure Units 397
Pressure Unit Conversion 398
11.4 Boyle’s Law: Pressure and Volume 399
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Airplane Cabin
Pressurization 400
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Extra-long Snorkels 404
11.5 Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature 404
11.6 The Combined Gas Law: Pressure,
Volume, and Temperature 408
11.7 Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Moles 410
11.8 The Ideal Gas Law: Pressure, Volume,
Temperature, and Moles 412
Determining Molar Mass of a Gas
from the Ideal Gas Law 416
Ideal and Nonideal Gas Behavior 418
11.9 Mixtures of Gases 418
Partial Pressure and Physiology 420
Collecting Gases over Water 421
11.10 Gases in Chemical Reactions 422
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature
and Pressure 425
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Air Pollution 427
Self-Assessment Quiz 428
Key Terms 432
Exercises 433
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 441
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 441
12 Liquids, Solids, and
Intermolecular Forces 442
12.1 Spherical Water 443
12.2 Properties of Liquids and Solids 444
12.3 Intermolecular Forces in Action:
Surface Tension and Viscosity 445
Surface Tension 446
Viscosity 446
12.4 Evaporation and Condensation 447
Boiling 448
Energetics of Evaporation and
Condensation 449
Heat of Vaporization 450
12.5 Melting, Freezing, and Sublimation 452
Energetics of Melting and
Freezing 452
Heat of Fusion 453
Sublimation 455
12.6 Types of Intermolecular Forces: Dispersion,
Dipole–Dipole, Hydrogen Bonding,
and Ion–Dipole 456
Dispersion Force 456
Dipole–Dipole Force 457
Hydrogen Bonding 459
Ion–Dipole Force 460
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Hydrogen
Bonding in DNA 461
12.7 Types of Crystalline Solids: Molecular,
Ionic, and Atomic 463
Molecular Solids 463
Ionic Solids 463
Atomic Solids 464
12.8 Water: A Remarkable Molecule 465
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT Water
Pollution and the Flint River Water Crisis 466
Self-Assessment Quiz 467
Key Terms 470
Exercises 470
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 477
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 477
13 Solutions 478
13.1 Tragedy in Cameroon 479
13.2 Solutions: Homogeneous Mixtures 480
13.3 Solutions of Solids Dissolved in Water:
How to Make Rock Candy 481
Solubility and Saturation 482
Electrolyte Solutions: Dissolved
Ionic Solids 483
How Solubility Varies with Temperature 484
13.4 Solutions of Gases in Water: How Soda
Pop Gets Its Fizz 484
13.5 Specifying Solution Concentration:
Mass Percent 486
Mass Percent 486
Using Mass Percent in Calculations 487
13.6 Specifying Solution Concentration:
Molarity 489
Using Molarity in Calculations 490
Ion Concentrations 492
13.7 Solution Dilution 492
13.8 Solution Stoichiometry 494
13.9 Freezing Point Depression and Boiling
Point Elevation: Making Water Freeze
Colder and Boil Hotter 497
Freezing Point Depression 497
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Antifreeze in Frogs 499
Boiling Point Elevation 499
13.10 Osmosis: Why Drinking Salt Water
Causes Dehydration 501
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Solutions in Medicine 502
Self-Assessment Quiz 503
Key Terms 508
Exercises 508
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 517
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 517
14 Acids and Bases 518
14.1 Sour Patch Kids and International
Spy Movies 519
14.2 Acids: Properties and Examples 520
14.3 Bases: Properties and Examples 522
14.4 Molecular Definitions of Acids and Bases 523
The Arrhenius Definition 523
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition 523
14.5 Reactions of Acids and Bases 525
Neutralization Reactions 525
Acid Reactions 526
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY What Is in My Antacid? 528
Base Reactions 528
14.6 Acid–Base Titration: A Way to Quantify
the Amount of Acid or Base in a Solution 528
14.7 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases 531
Strong Acids 531
Weak Acids 532
Strong Bases 534
Weak Bases 535
14.8 Water: Acid and Base in One 536
14.9 The pH and pOH Scales: Ways to
Express Acidity and Basicity 538
Calculating pH from H O 3
+ 538
Calculating H O 3
+ from pH 540
The pOH Scale 541
14.10 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change 542
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Alkaloids 542
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH The Danger
of Antifreeze 544
Self-Assessment Quiz 545
Key Terms 549
Exercises 550
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 557
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 557
15 Chemical Equilibrium 558
15.1 Life: Controlled Disequilibrium 559
15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction 560
Collision Theory 561
How Concentration Affects the Rate
of a Reaction 561
How Temperature Affects the Rate
of a Reaction 562
15.3 The Idea of Dynamic Chemical
Equilibrium 563
15.4 The Equilibrium Constant: A Measure
of How Far a Reaction Goes 565
Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions
for Chemical Reactions 566
The Significance of the Equilibrium15.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: The Equilibrium
Expression for Reactions Involving a Solid or a Liquid 568
15.6 Calculating and Using Equilibrium Constants 569
Calculating Equilibrium Constants 569
Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations 571
15.7 Disturbing a Reaction at Equilibrium:
Le Châtelier’s Principle 572
15.8 The Effect of a Concentration Change on
Equilibrium 574
15.9 The Effect of a Volume Change on
Equilibrium 576
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH How a Developing
Fetus Gets Oxygen 578
15.10 The Effect of a Temperature Change on
Equilibrium 579
15.11 The Solubility-Product Constant 581
Using Ksp to Determine Molar Solubility 582
15.12 The Path of a Reaction and the Effect
of a Catalyst 583
How Activation Energies Affect Reaction Rates 584
Catalysts Lower the Activation Energy 585
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts 586
Self-Assessment Quiz 588
Key Terms 592
Exercises 592
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 600
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 601
Constant 566
16 Oxidation and
Reduction 602
16.1 The End of the Internal Combustion Engine? 603
16.2 Oxidation and Reduction: Some Definitions 604
16.3 Oxidation States: Electron Bookkeeping 607
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Bleaching of Hair 609
16.4 Balancing Redox Equations 610
CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT
Photosynthesis and Respiration: Energy for Life 615
16.5 The Activity Series: Predicting
Spontaneous Redox Reactions 615
The Activity Series of Metals 616
Predicting Whether a Metal Will
Dissolve in Acid 618
16.6 Batteries: Using Chemistry to
Generate Electricity 619
The Voltaic Cell 619
Dry-Cell Batteries 621
Lead–Acid Storage Batteries 622
Fuel Cells 622
16.7 Electrolysis: Using Electricity to
Do Chemistry 623
16.8 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions 624
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY The Fuel-Cell
Breathalyzer 625
Self-Assessment Quiz 626
Key Terms 629
Exercises 630
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 637
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 637
17 Radioactivity and
Nuclear Chemistry 638
17.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis 639
17.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity 640
17.3 Types of Radioactivity: Alpha, Beta,
and Gamma Decay 641
Alpha (_) Radiation 642
Beta (_) Radiation 644
Gamma (_) Radiation 645
Positron Emission 646
17.4 Detecting Radioactivity 648
17.5 Natural Radioactivity and Half-Life 649
Half-Life 649
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Environmental Radon 651
A Natural Radioactive Decay Series 651
17.6 Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity
to Measure the Age of Fossils and Other
Artifacts 652
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Shroud of Turin 653
17.7 The Discovery of Fission and the
Atomic Bomb 654
17.8 Nuclear Power: Using Fission to
Generate Electricity 656
17.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun 658
17.10 The Effects of Radiation on Life 658
Acute Radiation Damage 658
Increased Cancer Risk 659
Genetic Defects 659
Measuring Radiation Exposure 659
17.11 Radioactivity in Medicine 659
Isotope Scanning 659
Radiotherapy 660
Self-Assessment Quiz 661
Key Terms 664
Exercises 664
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 669
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 669
18 Organic Chemistry 670
18.1 What Do I Smell? 671
18.2 Vitalism: The Difference between
Organic and Inorganic 672
18.3 Carbon: A Versatile Atom 673
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA The Origin of Life 674
18.4 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing
Only Carbon and Hydrogen 675
18.5 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons 676
CHEMISTRY IN THE MEDIA Environmental
Problems Associated with Hydrocarbon
Combustion 677
18.6 Isomers: Same Formula, Different Structure 681
18.7 Naming Alkanes 682
18.8 Alkenes and Alkynes 685
About Alkenes and Alkynes 685
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes 687
18.9 Hydrocarbon Reactions 688
Alkane Substitution Reactions 689
Alkene and Alkyne Addition Reactions 689
18.10 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 690
Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons 691
18.11 Functional Groups 693
18.12 Alcohols 694
Naming Alcohols 694
About Alcohols 695
18.13 Ethers 695
Naming Ethers 695
About Ethers 696
18.14 Aldehydes and Ketones 696
Naming Aldehydes and Ketones 696
About Aldehydes and Ketones 697
18.15 Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
About Carboxylic Acids and Esters 698
18.16 Amines 700
18.17 Polymers 701
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Kevlar: Stronger
Than Steel 703
Self-Assessment Quiz 704
Key Terms 708
Exercises 709
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 720
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 721
19 Biochemistry 722
19.1 The Human Genome Project 723
19.2 The Cell and Its Main Chemical Components 724
19.3 Carbohydrates: Sugar, Starch, and Fiber 724
Monosaccharides 725
Disaccharides 726
Polysaccharides 727
19.4 Lipids 729
Fatty Acids 729
Fats and Oils 730
Other Lipids 732
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Dietary Fats 734
19.5 Proteins 735
19.6 Protein Structure 739
Primary Structure 740
Secondary Structure 740
EVERYDAY CHEMISTRY Why Straight Hair
Gets Longer When It Is Wet 742
Tertiary Structure 742
Quaternary Structure 743
19.7 Nucleic Acids: Molecular Blueprints 744
19.8 DNA Structure, DNA Replication,
and Protein Synthesis 746
DNA Structure 747
DNA Replication 748
Protein Synthesis 749
CHEMISTRY AND HEALTH Drugs for Diabetes 751
Self-Assessment Quiz 751
Key Terms 754
Exercises 754
Answers to Skillbuilder Exercises 762
Answers to Conceptual Checkpoints 762
Appendix: Mathematics Review MR-1
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1
Glossary G-1
Credits C-1
Index I-1