American Government and Politics Today, Eighteenth Edition
By Lynne E. Ford, Barbara A. Bardes, Steffen W. Schmidt and Mack C. Shelley
Detailed contents:
PART I The American System
Chapter 1: One Republic—Two Americas? 1
Politics and Government 7
Why Is Government Necessary? 7
Fundamental Values 8
Liberty 10
Order and the Rule of Law 12
Individualism 12
Equality 12
Property 13
Why Choose Democracy? 14
Direct Democracy as a Model 16
The Limits of Direct Democracy 18
A Democratic Republic 18
Principles of Democratic Government 19
Who Really Rules in America? 20
Majoritarianism 20
Elitism 21
Pluralism 21
Political Ideologies 23
The Traditional Political Spectrum 24
In the Middle: Liberalism and Conservatism 24
The Difficulty of Defining Liberalism and Conservatism 24
Liberalism 24
Conservatism 25
Libertarianism 25
The Challenge of Change 26
Demographic Change in a Democratic Republic 26
Ethnic Change 27
Globalization 29
The Technology Revolution 30
Environmental Change 32
Chapter 2: The Constitution 35
The Colonial Background 37
Separatists, the Mayflower, and the Compact 38
More Colonies, More Government 39
British Restrictions and Colonial Grievances 40
The Colonial Response 40
The First Continental Congress 40
The Second Continental Congress 41
Declaring Independence 41
The Resolution of Independence 41
July 4, 1776—The Declaration of Independence 42
Universal Truths 42
Natural Rights and a Social Contract 42
The Rise of Republicanism 43
The Articles of Confederation: The First Form
of Government 43
Accomplishments under the Articles 44
Weaknesses of the Articles 45
Shays’ Rebellion and the Need for Revision of the
Articles 46
Drafting the Constitution 46
Who Were the Delegates? 47
The Working Environment 47
Factions among the Delegates 49
Politicking and Compromises 50
The Virginia Plan 50
The New Jersey Plan 50
The “Great Compromise” 51
The Three-Fifths Compromise 52
Other Issues 52
Working toward Final Agreement 52
The Madisonian Model—Separation of Powers 53
The Madisonian Model—Checks and Balances 53
The Executive 54
A Federal Republic 55
The Final Document 55
The Difficult Road to Ratification 55
The Federalists Push for Ratification 56
The Federalist Papers 56
The Anti-Federalist Response 57
The March to the Finish 57
Did the Majority of Americans Support the
Constitution? 57
State Ratifying Conventions 58
Support Was Probably Widespread 58
The Bill of Rights 60
A “Bill of Limits” 60
No Explicit Limits on State Government Powers 61
Altering the Constitution: The Formal Amendment
Process 61
Many Amendments Are Proposed; Few Are Accepted 62
Limits on Ratification 63
The National Convention Provision 64
Informal Methods of Constitutional Change 64
Congressional Legislation 65
Presidential Actions 66
Judicial Review 66
Not a Novel Concept 66
Allows the Court to Adapt the Constitution 67
Interpretation, Custom, and Usage 67
Chapter 3: Federalism 70
Three Systems of Government 73
A Unitary System 73
A Confederal System 73
A Federal System 73
Why Federalism? 74
A Practical Constitutional Solution 74
Benefits for the United States 75
Allowance for Many Political Subcultures 75
Arguments against Federalism 77
The Constitutional Basis for American Federalism 78
Powers of the National Government 78
The Necessary and Proper Clause 78
Inherent Powers 79
Powers of the State Governments 79
Concurrent Powers 82
Prohibited Powers 82
The Supremacy Clause 82
Vertical and Horizontal Checks and Balances 83
Interstate Relations 83
The Full Faith and Credit Clause 83
Privileges and Immunities 84
Interstate Extradition 84
Defining Constitutional Powers—The Early Years 86
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 86
The Constitutional Questions 86
Marshall’s Decision 87
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) 87
The Background of the Case 88
Marshall’s Ruling 88
States’ Rights and the Resort to Civil War 88
The Shift Back to States’ Rights 89
War and the Growth of the National Government 89
The War Effort 89
The Civil War Amendments 90
The Continuing Dispute over the Division of Power 90
Dual Federalism and the Retreat of National Authority 90
A Return to Normal Conditions 91
The Role of the Supreme Court 91
The New Deal and Cooperative Federalism 91
The “New Deal” 92
The End of Dual Federalism 92
Cooperative Federalism 92
Methods of Implementing Cooperative Federalism 93
Categorical Grants 93
Feeling the Pressure—The Strings Attached to Federal
Grants 94
Block Grants 94
Federal Mandates 95
The Politics of Federalism 95
What Has National Authority Accomplished? 96
Civil Rights and the War on Poverty 96
Why Would the States Favor the Status Quo? 96
Federalism Becomes a Partisan Issue 97
The “New Federalism” 98
New Judicial Federalism 98
Federalism in the Twenty-First Century 99
Federalism and the Supreme Court Today 100
Reining in the Commerce Power 100
State Sovereignty and the Eleventh Amendment 101
Tenth Amendment Issues 102
Federalism and State Immigration Policy 102
Other Federalism Cases 103
PART II Civil Rights and Civil Liberties
Chapter 4: Civil Liberties 107
Civil Liberties and the Bill of Rights 109
Extending the Bill of Rights to State Governments 110
Incorporation of the Fourteenth Amendment 110
Freedom of Religion 111
The Separation of Church and State—The Establishment
Clause 111
Aid to Church-Related Schools 112
A Change in the Court’s Position 113
School Vouchers 113
The Issue of School Prayer—Engel v. Vitale 114
The Debate over School Prayer Continues 115
Prayer Outside the Classroom 115
The Ten Commandments 116
Forbidding the Teaching of Evolution 116
Religious Speech 116
Public Expression of Religion 117
Blasphemy and Free Speech Rights 117
The Free Exercise Clause 118
The Religious Freedom Restoration Act 118
Freedom of Expression 120
No Prior Restraint 120
WikiLeaks, Edward Snowden, and Classified Information
on the Internet 120
The Protection of Symbolic Speech 121
The Protection of Commercial Speech 122
Permitted Restrictions on Expression 123
Clear and Present Danger 123
Modifications to the Clear and Present Danger Rule 123
Unprotected Speech: Obscenity 126
Definitional Problems 126
Protecting Children 126
Pornography on the Internet 126
Should “Virtual” Pornography Be Deemed a Crime? 127
Unprotected Speech: Slander 127
Campus Speech 128
Student Activity Fees 128
Campus Speech and Behavior Codes 128
Hate Speech on the Internet 130
Freedom of the Press 130
Defamation in Writing 130
A Free Press versus a Fair Trial: Gag Orders 131
Films, Radio, and TV 132
The Right to Assemble and to Petition
the Government 133
Online Assembly 134
More Liberties under Scrutiny: Matters
of Privacy 134
Information Privacy 135
Privacy Rights and Abortion 137
Roe v. Wade 137
The Controversy Continues 137
Privacy Rights and the “Right to Die” 139
What If No Living Will Exists? 139
Physician-Assisted Suicide 139
Privacy Rights versus Security Issues 140
The USA PATRIOT Act 140
Civil Liberties Concerns 141
The Great Balancing Act: The Rights of the Accused
versus the Rights of Society 143
Extending the Rights of the Accused 144
Miranda v. Arizona 145
Exceptions to the Miranda Rule 145
Video Recording of Interrogations 146
The Exclusionary Rule 146
The Death Penalty 146
Cruel and Unusual Punishment? 147
The Death Penalty Today 147
Chapter 5: Civil Rights 152
African Americans and the Consequences
of Slavery in the United States 154
Ending Servitude 155
The Civil Rights Acts of 1865 to 1875 155
The Limitations of the Civil Rights Laws 156
The Civil Rights Cases 157
Plessy v. Ferguson: Separate but Equal 157
Voting Barriers 157
Extralegal Methods of Enforcing White
Supremacy 158
The End of the Separate-but-Equal Doctrine 159
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka 159
“With All Deliberate Speed” 160
Reactions to School Integration 160
Integration Today 161
The Resurgence of Minority Schools 161
The Civil Rights Movement 162
King’s Philosophy of Nonviolence 163
Nonviolent Demonstrations 163
Marches and Demonstrations 163
Another Approach—Black Power 164
The Escalation of the Civil Rights Movement 164
Modern Civil Rights Legislation 165
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 165
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 166
Urban Riots 166
The Civil Rights Act of 1968 and Other Housing-Reform
Legislation 166
Consequences of Civil Rights Legislation 167
Political Representation by African Americans 169
The U.S. Census and Civil Rights 170
Lingering Social and Economic Disparities 170
Race-Conscious or Post-Racial Society? 171
#BlackLivesMatter 172
Race and Confederate Symbols 173
Women’s Campaign for Equal Rights 174
Early Women’s Political Movements 174
Women’s Suffrage Associations 175
The Second Wave of the Women’s Movement 177
The Equal Rights Amendment 180
Three-State Strategy 180
Challenging Gender Discrimination in the Courts
and Legislatures 180
Women in Politics Today 182
Gender-Based Discrimination in the
Workplace 183
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 183
Sexual Harassment 184
Wage Discrimination 184
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 184
Voting Rights and the Young 187
Immigration, Latinos, and Civil Rights 188
Mexican American Civil Rights 188
The Continued Influx of Immigrants 189
Illegal Immigration 190
Citizenship 191
Accommodating Diversity with Bilingual Education 191
Affirmative Action 192
The Bakke Case 192
Further Limits on Affirmative Action 194
State Ballot Initiatives 195
Making Amends for Past Discrimination through
Reparations 196
Special Protection for Older Americans 197
Securing Rights for Persons with Disabilities 198
The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 198
Limiting the Scope and Applicability of the ADA 199
The Rights and Status of Gays and Lesbians 199
Progress in the Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement 200
State and Local Laws Targeting Gays and Lesbians 200
Gays and Lesbians in the Military 201
Same-Sex Marriage 201
Defense of Marriage Act 202
A Short History of State Recognition of Gay Marriages 203
Shift in Public Opinion for Marriage Equality 203
PART III People and Politics
Chapter 6: Public Opinion and Political
Socialization 207
Defining Public Opinion 210
Public Opinion and Policymaking 210
How Public Opinion Is Formed: Political
Socialization 212
Models of Political Socialization 212
The Family and the Social Environment 213
Education as a Source of Political Socialization 213
Peers and Peer Group Influence 213
Opinion Leaders’ Influence 215
Political Change and Political Socialization 218
The Impact of the Media 218
The Influence of Political Events 220
Political Preferences and Voting Behavior 221
Demographic Influences 221
Education 222
The Influence of Economic Status 222
Religious Influence: Denomination 224
Religious Influence: Religiosity and Evangelicals 224
The Influence of Race and Ethnicity 224
The Gender Gap 225
Reasons for the Gender Gap 226
Geographic Region 227
Measuring Public Opinion 228
The History of Opinion Polls 228
Sampling Techniques 229
Representative Sampling 229
The Principle of Randomness 229
Problems with Polls 231
Sampling Errors 231
Poll Questions 232
Push Polls 232
Technology, Public Opinion, and the Political
Process 233
Public Opinion and the Political Process 233
Political Culture and Public Opinion 234
Political Trust and Support for the Political System 234
Public Opinion about Government 236
Chapter 7: Interest Groups 241
Interest Groups: A Natural Phenomenon 243
Interest Groups and Social Movements 244
Why So Many? 246
Why Do Americans Join Interest Groups? 246
Incentives 247
Solidary Incentives 247
Material Incentives 248
Purposive Incentives 248
Types of Interest Groups 248
Economic Interest Groups 249
Business Interest Groups 249
Agricultural Interest Groups 250
Labor Interest Groups 250
Public-Employee Unions 252
Interest Groups of Professionals 253
The Unorganized Poor 253
Environmental Groups 254
Public-Interest Groups 255
Nader Organizations 255
Other Public-Interest Groups 255
Other Interest Groups 257
Foreign Governments 257
What Makes an Interest Group Powerful? 257
Size and Resources 258
Leadership 259
Cohesiveness 261
Interest Group Strategies 261
Direct Techniques 261
Lobbying Techniques 261
The Ratings Game 262
Building Alliances 263
Campaign Assistance 263
Indirect Techniques 264
Generating Public Pressure 265
Using Constituents as Lobbyists 265
Unconventional Forms of Pressure 266
Regulating Lobbyists 266
The Results of the 1946 Act 267
The Reforms of 1995 267
Lobbying Scandals 268
Interest Groups and Representative Democracy 268
Interest Group Influence 269
Chapter 8: Political Parties 272
What Is a Political Party and What Do
Parties Do? 275
Getting Organized: The Three Components of a Party 276
Party Organization 277
The National Convention 277
The State Party Organization 278
Local Party Organizations 280
The Party-in-Government 280
Divided Government 280
The Limits of Party Unity 280
Party Polarization 281
A History of Political Parties in the United States 281
The First-Party System: The Development of Parties,
1789–1828 283
The Era of Good Feelings 284
The Second-Party System: Democrats and Whigs,
1828–1860 284
The Third-Party System: Republicans’ Rise to Power and the
Civil War, 1860–1896 284
“Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion” 285
The Triumph of the Republicans 285
The Fourth-Party System: The Progressive Interlude
and Republican Dominance, 1896–1932 285
The Fifth-Party System: The New Deal and Democratic
Dominance, 1932–1968 286
A Post-Party System Era, 1968–Present? 287
Red State, Blue State 288
Partisan Trends in the Elections of 2012 and 2016 288
The Two Major U.S. Parties Today 289
Who Belongs to Each Political Party? 290
Differences in Party Policy Priorities 292
The 2012 Elections—Shaping the Parties for 2014 and 2016 292
The 2016 Primaries and the Rise of “Outsiders” 294
Why Has the Two-Party System Endured? 297
The Historical Foundations of the Two-Party System 297
Political Socialization and Practical Considerations 297
The Winner-Take-All Electoral System 298
Proportional Representation 298
State and Federal Laws Favoring the Two Parties 299
The Role of Minor Parties in U.S. Politics 300
Ideological Third Parties 301
Splinter Parties 301
The Impact of Minor Parties 302
Influencing the Major Parties 302
Affecting the Outcome of an Election 302
Mechanisms of Political Change 303
Realignment 303
Realignment: The Myth of Dominance 303
Realignment: The Myth of Predictability 303
Is Realignment Still Possible? 305
Dealignment 306
Independent Voters 306
Not-So-Independent Voters 306
Tipping 307
Tipping in Massachusetts 307
Tipping in California 307
Political Parties of the Future 308
Chapter 9: Campaigns, Voting,
and Elections 311
Who Wants to Be a Candidate? 313
Why They Run 313
The Nomination Process 313
Who Is Eligible? 314
Who Runs? 314
Women as Candidates 315
The Twenty-First-Century Campaign 316
The Changing Campaign 316
The Professional Campaign Staff 317
The Strategy of Winning 318
Candidate Visibility and Appeal 318
Taking the Public Pulse 319
The Media and Political Campaigns 319
Financing the Campaign 319
Regulating Campaign Financing 322
The Federal Election Campaign Act 322
Further Reforms in 1974 322
Buckley v. Valeo 323
Interest Groups and Campaign Finance: Reaction
to New Rules 323
PACs and Political Campaigns 324
Campaign Financing beyond the Limits 324
Contributions to Political Parties 324
Independent Expenditures 326
Issue Advocacy 326
The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 326
Key Elements of the New Law 327
The Rise of the 527s 327
Citizens United, Freedom Now, and the Future of Campaign
Finance Regulation 329
Running for President: The Longest Campaign 330
Reforming the Primaries 330
Front-Loading the Primaries 331
The Rush to Be First 331
The 2016 Primary Season 331
On to the National Convention 332
Seating the Delegates 332
Convention Activities 332
On to the General Election 333
Voting in the United States 334
Turning Out to Vote 334
The Effect of Low Voter Turnout 336
Is Voter Turnout Declining? 337
Factors Influencing Who Votes 337
Why People Do Not Vote 339
Uninformative Media Coverage and Negative
Campaigning 339
The Rational Ignorance Effect 340
Plans for Improving Voter Turnout 340
Legal Restrictions on Voting 341
Historical Restrictions 341
Property Requirements 341
Further Extensions of the Franchise 341
Is the Franchise Still Too Restrictive? 342
Current Eligibility and Registration Requirements 342
Extension of the Voting Rights Act 343
Primary Elections, General Elections,
and More 344
Primary Elections 344
Closed Primary 345
Open Primary 345
Blanket Primary 345
Runoff Primary 345
General and Other Elections 345
How Are Elections Conducted? 346
Office-Block and Party-Column Ballots 346
Vote Fraud 347
The Danger of Fraud 347
Mistakes by Voting Officials 347
The Importance of the Voting Machine 348
The Electoral College 348
The Choice of Electors 348
The Electors’ Commitment 349
Criticisms of the Electoral College 349
Chapter 10: The Media and Politics 355
A Brief History of the Media’s Role in United States
Politics 357
The Rise of the Popular Press 357
Mass-Readership Newspapers 358
News Delivered over the Airwaves 358
The Revolution in Electronic Media 359
The Special Relationship between the Media
and the Executive 360
The Internet and Social Media 363
The Role of the Media in Our Society 365
The Media’s Political Functions 365
Provide Information 366
Identify Problems and Set the Public Agenda 366
Investigate and Report on Wrongdoing 367
Socialize New Generations 368
Providing a Political Forum for Dialogue
and Debate 368
The Media’s Impact: Political Campaigns 369
Advertising 369
Management of News Coverage 370
Campaign Debates 371
The Internet and Social Media 372
The Media’s Impact: Voters 373
The Government’s Regulatory Relationship
with Media 374
Government Regulation of the Media 374
Controlling Ownership of the Media 374
Increased Media Concentration 375
Government Control of Content 376
Control of Broadcasting 376
Government Control of the Media during the Second Gulf
War 377
The Government’s Attempt to Control the Media after
the September 11, 2001, Attacks 377
Net Neutrality 377
The Public’s Right to Media Access 379
Bias in the Media 379
Do the Media Have a Partisan Bias? 380
A Racial Bias? 380
A Gender Bias? 381
PART IV Political Institutions
Chapter 11: The Congress 385
The Functions of Congress 387
The Lawmaking Function 388
The Representation Function 388
The Trustee View of Representation 388
The Instructed-Delegate View of Representation 389
Service to Constituents 389
The Oversight Function 390
The Public-Education Function 391
The Conflict-Resolution Function 391
The Powers of Congress 391
Enumerated Powers 391
Powers of the Senate 392
Constitutional Amendments 392
The Necessary and Proper Clause 392
Checks on Congress 393
House–Senate Differences 393
Size and Rules 394
Debate and Filibustering 394
Prestige 395
Congresspersons and the Citizenry: A Comparison 395
Congressional Elections 396
Candidates for Congressional Elections 396
Congressional Campaigns and Elections 397
Presidential Effects 397
The Power of Incumbency 398
Congressional Apportionment 399
Gerrymandering 400
Redistricting after the 2010 Census 401
Nonpartisan Redistricting 402
“Minority-Majority” Districts 403
Constitutional Challenges 403
Changing Directions 404
Perks and Privileges 404
Permanent Professional Staffs 404
Privileges and Immunities under the Law 405
Congressional Caucuses: Another Source of Support 405
The Committee Structure 406
The Power of Committees 406
Types of Congressional Committees 407
Standing Committees 407
Select Committees 408
Joint Committees 408
Conference Committees 408
The House Rules Committee 408
The Selection of Committee Members 408
The Formal Leadership 409
Leadership in the House 409
The Speaker 409
The Majority Leader 410
The Minority Leader 410
Whips 410
Leadership in the Senate 412
How Members of Congress Decide 413
The Conservative Coalition 413
Polarization and Gridlock 413
“Crossing Over” 414
Logrolling, Earmarks, and “Pork” 414
How a Bill Becomes Law 414
How Much Will the Government Spend? 416
Preparing the Budget 416
Congress Faces the Budget 417
Budget Resolutions 418
Chapter 12: The President 422
Who Can Become President? 424
The Process of Becoming President 425
The Many Roles of the President 426
Head of State 426
Chief Executive 427
The Powers of Appointment and Removal 428
The Power to Grant Reprieves and Pardons 428
Commander in Chief 429
Wartime Powers 429
The War Powers Resolution 430
Chief Diplomat 430
Diplomatic Recognition 430
Proposal and Ratification of Treaties 431
Executive Agreements 432
Chief Legislator 433
Legislation Passed 435
Saying No to Legislation 435
The Line-Item Veto 438
Congress’s Power to Override Presidential
Vetoes 438
Other Presidential Powers 438
The President as Party Chief and Superpolitician 439
The President as Chief of Party 439
The President’s Power to Persuade 439
Constituencies and Public Approval 440
Presidential Constituencies 440
Public Approval 440
George W. Bush and the Public Opinion Polls 441
Obama and Trump: Public Approval 441
“Going Public” 442
Special Uses of Presidential Power 442
Emergency Powers 442
Executive Orders 443
Executive Privilege 444
Limiting Executive Privilege 444
Clinton’s Attempted Use of Executive Privilege 444
Abuses of Executive Power and Impeachment 445
The Executive Organization 445
The Cabinet 446
Members of the Cabinet 446
Presidential Use of Cabinets 446
The Executive Office of the President 446
The White House Office 448
The Office of Management and Budget 449
The National Security Council 449
“Policy Czars” 449
The Vice Presidency 450
The Vice President’s Job 450
Strengthening the Ticket 450
Supporting the President 451
Presidential Succession 452
The Twenty-fifth Amendment 452
When the Vice Presidency Becomes Vacant 453
Chapter 13: The Bureaucracy 457
The Nature of Bureaucracy 459
Public and Private Bureaucracies 459
Models of Bureaucracy 460
Weberian Model 460
Acquisitive Model 460
Monopolistic Model 460
Bureaucracies Compared 461
The Size of the Bureaucracy 461
The Organization of the Federal Bureaucracy 462
Cabinet Departments 463
Independent Executive Agencies 465
Independent Regulatory Agencies 466
The Purpose and Nature of Regulatory Agencies 466
Agency Capture 467
Deregulation and Reregulation 467
Government Corporations 468
Challenges to the Bureaucracy 469
Reorganizing to Stop Terrorism 469
Dealing with Natural Disasters 470
Staffing the Bureaucracy 471
Political Appointees 471
The Aristocracy of the Federal Government 472
The Difficulty in Firing Civil Servants 472
History of the Federal Civil Service 472
To the Victor Belong the Spoils 473
The Civil Service Reform Act of 1883 473
The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 474
Federal Employees and Political Campaigns 474
Modern Attempts at Bureaucratic Reform 475
Sunshine Laws before and after September 11 475
Information Disclosure 475
Curbs on Information Disclosure 475
Sunset Laws 475
Privatization 476
Incentives for Efficiency and Productivity 476
Government Performance and Results Act 478
Bureaucracy Has Changed Little 478
Saving Costs through E-Government 479
Helping Out the Whistleblowers 479
Laws Protecting Whistleblowers 479
The Problem Continues 479
Bureaucrats as Politicians and Policymakers 480
The Rule-Making Environment 481
Waiting Periods and Court Challenges 481
Controversies 481
Negotiated Rule Making 482
Bureaucrats Are Policymakers 482
Iron Triangles 483
Issue Networks 484
Congressional Control of the Bureaucracy 484
Ways Congress Does Control the Bureaucracy 484
Reasons Why Congress Cannot Easily Oversee
the Bureaucracy 486
Chapter 14: The Courts 490
Sources of American Law 492
Constitutions 494
Statutes and Administrative Regulations 494
Case Law 494
Judicial Review 494
The Federal Court System 496
Basic Judicial Requirements 497
Jurisdiction 497
Standing to Sue 497
Types of Federal Courts 498
U.S. District Courts 498
U.S. Courts of Appeals 498
The U.S. Supreme Court 500
Specialized Federal Courts and the War on Terrorism 500
The FISA Court 500
Alien “Removal Courts” 501
Parties to Lawsuits 502
Procedural Rules 503
The Supreme Court at Work 503
Which Cases Reach the Supreme Court? 504
Factors That Bear on the Decision 504
Granting Petitions for Review 505
Deciding Cases 505
Decisions and Opinions 505
When There Are Eight Justices 506
The Selection of Federal Judges 507
Judicial Appointments 507
Federal District Court Judgeship Nominations 508
Federal Courts of Appeals Appointments 509
Supreme Court Appointments 509
The Special Role of the Chief Justice 509
Partisanship and Judicial Appointments 510
The Senate’s Role 511
Policymaking and the Courts 512
Judicial Review 512
Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint 512
Strict versus Broad Construction 513
Ideology and the Rehnquist Court 514
The Roberts Court 515
What Checks Our Courts? 516
Executive Checks 516
Legislative Checks 517
Constitutional Amendments 517
Rewriting Laws 518
Public Opinion 518
Judicial Traditions and Doctrines 519
Hypothetical and Political Questions 519
The Impact of the Lower Courts 519
PART V Public Policy
Chapter 15: Domestic Policy 523
The Policymaking Process 525
Agenda Building 525
Policy Formulation 526
Policy Adoption 526
Policy Implementation 526
Policy Evaluation 527
Health Care 527
The Rising Cost of Health Care 528
Advanced Technology 528
The Government’s Role in Financing Health Care 528
Medicare 529
Medicaid 530
Why Has Medicaid Spending Exploded? 530
Medicaid and the States 530
The Uninsured 531
The 2010 Health-Care Reform Legislation 532
Environmental Policy 532
The Environmental Movement 533
Cleaning Up the Air and Water 534
The National Environmental Policy Act 534
Curbing Air Pollution 534
Water Pollution 535
The Endangered Species Act 535
Sustainability 536
Global Climate Change 538
The Kyoto Protocol 538
COP21: The New Agreement 538
The Global Warming Debate 540
Energy Policy 540
Energy and the Environment 543
Nuclear Power—An Unpopular Solution 544
Alternative Approaches to the Energy Crisis 545
Poverty and Welfare 546
The Low-Income Population 546
The Antipoverty Budget 547
Basic Welfare 548
Welfare Controversies 548
Other Forms of Government Assistance 549
Homelessness—Still a Problem 549
Immigration 550
The Continued Influx of Immigrants 550
Minority Groups’ Importance on the Rise 550
The Advantages of High Rates of Immigration 550
Attempts at Immigration Reform 550
The Range of Federal Public Policies 552
Chapter 16: Economic Policy 556
Prosperity Is the Goal 559
Unemployment 560
Unemployment Becomes an Issue 560
Measuring Unemployment 561
Inflation 562
The Business Cycle 562
The Economic Toolkit 562
Economic Theory Guides Policy 563
Laissez-Faire Economics 563
Keynesian Economic Theory 564
Supply-Side Economics 564
Fiscal Policy 565
Discretionary Fiscal Policy 565
The Thorny Problem of Timing 566
Government Borrowing 566
The Public Debt in Perspective 567
The Politics of Taxes 569
Federal Income Tax Rates 569
Loopholes and Lowered Taxes 570
Progressive and Regressive Taxation 570
Who Pays? 571
Entitlements: The Big Budget Item 572
Social Security and Medicare 573
Social Security Is Not a Pension Fund 573
What Will It Take to Salvage Social Security? 573
Raise Taxes 573
Consider Other Options 575
Privatize Social Security 575
Monetary Policy 575
Organization of the Federal Reserve System 575
Loose and Tight Monetary Policies 576
Time Lags for Monetary Policy 576
Monetary versus Fiscal Policy 576
Globalization and World Trade 578
Imports and Exports 579
The Impact of Import Restrictions on Exports 579
Quotas and Tariffs 579
Free-Trade Areas and Common Markets 579
The World Trade Organization 580
What the WTO Does 580
Sending Work Overseas 581
Facing the Future 581
Chapter 17: Foreign Policy and National
Security 585
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy 587
National Security Policy 588
Diplomacy 588
Who Makes Foreign Policy? 589
Constitutional Powers of the President 589
War Powers 590
Treaties and Executive Agreements 591
Other Constitutional Powers 592
Informal Techniques of Presidential Leadership 592
Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking 593
The Department of State 593
The National Security Council 594
The Intelligence Community 594
Covert Actions 594
Criticisms of the Intelligence Community 595
The Department of Defense (DOD) 595
Congress Balances the Presidency 596
Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy 597
Elite and Mass Opinion 597
Interest Group Politics in Global Affairs 597
The Major Themes of American Foreign Policy 598
The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements 598
The Monroe Doctrine 599
The Spanish–American War and World War I 599
The Era of Internationalism 599
The Cold War 600
Containment Policy 600
Superpower Relations 601
The Cuban Missile Crisis 602
A Period of Détente 602
The Reagan–Bush Years 602
The Dissolution of the Soviet Union 603
The War on Terror 603
The Iraq and Afghanistan Wars 604
The Persian Gulf—The First Gulf War 604
The Iraq War 605
Occupied Iraq 605
The Situation Worsens 605
The Bush Surge 605
The “Necessary” War 606
Global Policy Challenges 607
The Emerging World Order 608
The Threat of Terrorism 609
Terrorism and Regional Strife 609
Terrorist Attacks against Foreign Civilians 609
London Bombings 609
Nuclear Weapons 610
The United States and the Soviet Union 610
Nuclear Proliferation 611
The United States and Regional Conflicts 611
The Middle East 611
The Arab Spring 613
Iranian Ambitions 615
Central and South America 615
War and HIV/AIDS in Africa 616
PART VI State and Local Politics
Chapter 18: State and Local Government 621
The U.S. Constitution and the State Governments 623
Why Are State Constitutions So Long? 624
The Constitutional Convention and the Constitutional
Initiative 625
The State Executive Branch 625
A Weak Executive 625
Increasing the Governor’s Power 626
The Governor’s Veto Power 627
The State Legislature 627
Legislative Apportionment 629
Minority Representation 629
Political Gerrymandering 629
Term Limits for State Legislators 630
Ethics and Campaign Finance Reform in the States 631
Direct Democracy: The Initiative, Referendum, and
Recall 633
The Initiative 633
The Referendum 633
The Recall 633
The State Judiciary 634
Trial Courts 635
Appellate Courts 635
Judicial Elections and Appointments 635
How Local Government Operates 636
The Legal Existence of Local Government 636
Local Governmental Units 636
Municipalities 636
Counties 637
Towns and Townships 637
Special Districts and School Districts 639
Consolidation of Governments 639
How Municipalities Are Governed 640
The Commission Plan 640
The Council-Manager Plan 641
The Mayor-Administrator Plan 641
The Mayor-Council Plan 641
Machine versus Reform in City Politics 643
Paying for State and Local Government 644
State and Local Government Expenditures 644
State and Local Government Revenues 644
The Struggle to Balance State Budgets 646
Getting into Trouble: Borrowing Too Much 647
Getting into Trouble: Poor Productivity 647
Getting into Trouble: Health-Care Costs 647
States Recover from the Recession 648
States as Policy Pioneers 648
Appendi x A: The Declaration of Independence 651
Appendi x B: The Constitution of the United States 653
Appendi x c: The Federalist Papers Nos. 10 and 51 669
Gloss ary 675
Index 686