Environmental Science, 16th Edition PDF by William P Cunningham, Mary Ann Cunningham, Catherine M O’Reilly and Katherine E Winsett

By

Environmental Science, Sixteenth Edition

By William P. Cunningham, Mary Ann Cunningham, Catherine M. O’Reilly and Katherine E. Winsett

Environmental Science, 16th Edition

Contents:

Preface xiv

Introduction: Learning to Learn 1

Case Study How Can I Do Well in Environmental

Science? 2

L.1 HOW CAN I GET AN A IN THIS CLASS? 3

What are good study habits? 3

How can you use this textbook effectively? 4

Will this be on the test? 5

L.2 THINKING ABOUT THINKING 5

How do you tell the news from the noise? 5

Applying critical thinking 6

1 Understanding Our Environment 8

Case Study Sustainable Development Goals for Kibera 9

1.1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 10

Environmental science is about understanding where we live 10

Major themes in environmental science 11

What Do You Think? Calculating Your Ecological

Footprint 15

1.2 WHERE DO OUR IDEAS ABOUT OUR ENVIRONMENT COME

FROM? 16

Current ideas have followed industrialization 16

Stage 1. Resource waste inspired pragmatic, utilitarian

conservation 16

Stage 2. Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the preservation

movement 17

Stage 3. Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental

movement 18

Stage 4. Environmental quality is tied to social progress 18

Youth leadership and people of color are transforming

environmental ideas 19

1.3 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 20

Affluence is a goal and a liability 20

Is sustainable development possible? 22

The UN has identified 17 Sustainable Development Goals 23

The Millennium Development Goals were largely successful 24

Development depends on how wealthy countries

allocate spending 24

1.4 CORE CONCEPTS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 25

How do we describe resource use? 25

Planetary boundaries define broad limits 26

Indigenous peoples often protect biodiversity 27

Contents

1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS, FAITH, AND JUSTICE 27

We can extend moral value to people and things 28

Many faiths promote conservation and justice 28

Environmental justice integrates civil rights and environmental

protection 29

Data Analysis Working with Graphs 32

2 Principles of Science and Systems 33

Case Study Snapshot Serengeti 34

2.1 WHAT IS SCIENCE? 35

Science depends on skepticism and accuracy 35

Deductive and inductive reasoning are both useful 36

Testable hypotheses and theories are essential tools 36

Understanding probability helps reduce uncertainty 37

Exploring Science Why Do Scientists Answer Questions with

a Number? 38

Statistics can indicate the probability that your

results were random 39

Experimental design can reduce bias 39

Models are an important experimental strategy 40

2.2 SYSTEMS INVOLVE INTERACTIONS 41

Systems can be described in terms of their

characteristics 41

Systems may exhibit stability 43

2.3 SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT 43

Detecting pseudoscience relies on independent, critical

thinking 44

Uncertainty, proof, and group identity 45

Data Analysis 47

3 Matter, Energy, and Life 48

Case Study Death by Fertilizer: Hypoxia in the Gulf of

Mexico 49

3.1 ELEMENTS OF LIFE 50

Atoms, elements, and compounds 50

Chemical bonds hold molecules together 51

Unique properties of water 52

Ions react and bond to form compounds 52

Organic compounds have a carbon backbone 53

Cells are the fundamental units of life 54

Exploring Science Gene Editing 55

3.2 ENERGY FOR LIFE 56

Energy varies in intensity 56

Thermodynamics regulates energy transfers 56

Ecosystems run on energy 57

Photosynthesis captures energy; respiration releases that energy 58

3.3 FROM SPECIES TO ECOSYSTEMS 60

Ecosystems include living and nonliving parts 60

Food webs link species of different trophic levels 60

Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels 62

3.4 MATERIAL CYCLES 64

The hydrologic cycle redistributes water 64

Carbon cycles through earth, air, water, and life 65

Nitrogen occurs in many forms 66

Phosphorus follows a one-way path 67

Data Analysis Inspect the Chesapeake’s Report Card 70

4 Evolution, Biological Communities, and Species

Interactions 71

Case Study Seagrass Meadows, the Planet’s Hidden

Productivity Powerhouse 72

4.1 EVOLUTION PRODUCES SPECIES DIVERSITY 73

Evolution occurs through reproduction, variation, and natural

selection 74

All species live within limits 74

An ecological niche is a species’ environment and its ecological

role 75

Resource partitioning can reduce competition 77

Speciation, the process of creating new species, maintains

natural diversity 78

Evolutionary change is typically slow 79

Taxonomy describes relationships among species 79

4.2 SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND THE EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS 80

Predator-prey dynamics assert selective pressure 80

Competition occurs between and within species 82

Symbiosis involves long-term interaction between species 83

Exploring Science Say Hello to Your 90 Trillion Little

Friends 85

Keystone species have disproportionate influence 86

4.3 COMMUNITY PROPERTIES AFFECT SPECIES, POPULATIONS, AND

PRODUCTIVITY 87

Community dynamics involves diversity, abundance, and

distribution of species 87

Complexity and connectedness are important ecological

indicators 88

Biological communities vary in productivity 89

What Can You Do? Working Locally for Ecological

Diversity 90

4.4 SYSTEM CHANGE AND RESILIENCE 90

Ecological succession involves changes in community

composition 90

Biological communities may be adapted to disturbance 91

The adaptive cycle explains a system’s response to

disturbance 92

Systems can shift abruptly 93

Resilience is the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and

maintain its historic identity 94

Data Analysis SeagrassSpotter 96

5 Biomes: Global Patterns of Life 97

Case Study Shifting Biomes, Shifting

Ways of Life? 98

5.1 TERRESTRIAL BIOMES 99

Tropical moist forests have rain year-round 100

Exploring Science How Do We Describe Climate

Regions? 101

Tropical seasonal forests have yearly dry seasons 102

Tropical savannas and grasslands support few trees 102

Deserts can be hot or cold, but all are dry 102

Temperate grasslands have rich soils 103

Temperate shrublands have summer drought 104

Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous 104

Boreal forests occur at high latitudes 105

Tundra can freeze in any month 105

5.2 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS 106

Depth controls light penetration and temperature 107

Coastal zones support rich, diverse communities 108

5.3 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS 110

Temperature and light vary with depth in lakes 111

Wetlands are shallow and productive 111

5.4 HUMAN DISTURBANCE 112

Agriculture is responsible for most land conversion 112

Small systems are most at risk 113

Data Analysis Reading Climate Graphs 115

6 Population Biology 116

Case Study Flying Fish 117

6.1 DYNAMICS OF POPULATION GROWTH 118

We can describe growth symbolically 118

Exponential growth involves continuous change 119

Doubling times and the rule of 70 119

Exponential growth leads to crashes 119

Logistic growth slows with population increase 119

These values help predict sustainable yield 120

Species respond to limits differently:

r- and K-selected species 121

What Do You Think? Too Many Deer? 122

6.2 FACTORS THAT REGULATE POPULATION GROWTH 123

Survivorship curves show life histories 123

Intrinsic and extrinsic factors affect births and deaths 123

Interspecific interactions are between species; intraspecific

interactions are within a species 124

Stress and crowding can affect reproduction 125

Density-dependent effects can be dramatic 125

Exploring Science How Do You Measure

Populations? 126

6.3 POPULATION SIZE AND CONSERVATION 126

Small, isolated populations are vulnerable 126

Genetic diversity may help a population survive 127

Population viability can depend on population size 128

Data Analysis Experimenting with Population

Growth 130

7 Human Populations 131

Case Study China Is Aging 132

7.1 PERSPECTIVES ON POPULATION 133

How many of us are there? 133

Human populations grew slowly until relatively

recently 134

Do large families cause poverty, or does poverty cause

large families? 135

Different theories imply different solutions 136

Technology can change carrying capacity 136

Environmental Impact (I) = PAT 136

Population growth can power innovation 137

7.2 WAYS WE DESCRIBE GROWTH 137

We describe growth rates in several ways 137

Fertility rate is the number of children per woman 138

Fertility rates are falling globally 139

7.3 WHAT FACTORS AFFECT POPULATION GROWTH? 140

Development promotes a demographic transition 140

Long life expectancy increases populations 141

Age distributions determine future growth 142

Pronatalist factors encourage fertility 142

Girls’ education and child health affect fertility rates 144

Major events influence birth rates 144

Family planning gives us choices 145

Could we have a birth dearth? 145

What Do You Think? China’s One-Child Policy 146

7.4 WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF GROWTH? 147

Development is seen as the main path to slower growth 147

Migration is a growing concern 147

The demographic trap and lifeboat ethics describe

challenges of poverty 148

Social justice is an important consideration 148

Our choices now determine our future 149

Data Analysis Population Change over Time 151

8 Environmental Health and Toxicology 152

Case Study PFAS: Miracle or Menace? 153

8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 154

What is health? 154

The global disease burden is changing 154

Chronic conditions now outweigh infectious diseases 155

Major causes of death have also changed 155

Infectious diseases still kill millions of people 156

Emergent diseases often come from wildlife contact 156

Novel diseases also threaten wild species 158

Amphibians are especially vulnerable 158

Multiple stressors aid novel parasites 158

What Do You Think? High temperatures and heat stress:

How does global warming affect our health? 159

Overuse of antibiotics breeds super bugs 160

What would better health cost? 160

8.2 ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 161

How do toxic substances affect us? 162

What Can You Do? Tips for Staying Healthy 163

How does diet influence health? 164

8.3 THE MOVEMENT, DISTRIBUTION, AND FATE OF TOXIC

SUBSTANCES 164

Compounds dissolve either in water or in fat 165

Children have higher sensitivity 166

Bioaccumulation and biomagnification

increase concentrations of chemicals 166

Persistence makes some materials a greater threat 167

POPs are an especially serious problem 167

Synergistic interactions can increase toxicity 168

Our bodies degrade and excrete toxic substances 168

8.4 ASSESSING TOXICITY AND RISK 169

We usually test toxic effects on lab animals 169

Toxicity varies widely 170

Acute and chronic doses and effects differ 171

Detectable levels aren’t always dangerous 171

Risk perception isn’t always rational 171

How much risk is acceptable? 172

Circumstances influence our response to risk 172

Setting health policies is complex 173

Data Analysis Comparing Health Risks 176

9 Food and Hunger 177

Case Study Food Security in the Sahel 178

9.1 WORLD FOOD AND NUTRITION 179

Millions of people are still chronically hungry 180

Famines usually have political and social causes 181

Ending hunger requires nutritious foods 181

Macronutrients fuel the body 182

Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals 183

Food insecurity is widespread and persistent 183

Global factors can cause price spikes 183

9.2 KEY FOOD SOURCES 184

Rising meat production has costs and benefits 185

What Do You Think? Diet for a Small Planet? 186

Seafood is our only commercial wild-caught protein source 186

Most commercial fishing operates on an industrial scale 187

Aquaculture produces over half our seafood 188

Antibiotics are overused in intensive production 189

Food systems are vulnerable to climate change 189

9.3 THE GREEN REVOLUTION AND GENETIC ENGINEERING 190

Green revolution crops are high responders 191

Genetic engineering moves DNA among species 191

Most GMOs have been engineered for pest resistance or

herbicide tolerance 192

Safety of GMOs is widely debated 193

9.4 FOOD PRODUCTION POLICIES 193

Is genetic engineering about food production? 194

Farm policies can also protect the land 195

Data Analysis Exploring Global Food Data 196

10 Farming: Conventional and Sustainable

Practices 197

Case Study Farming the Cerrado 198

10.1 WHAT IS SOIL? 199

Soils are complex ecosystems 199

Healthy soil fauna can determine soil fertility 200

Your food comes mostly from the A horizon 201

10.2 HOW DO WE USE, ABUSE, AND CONSERVE SOILS? 202

Arable land is unevenly distributed 203

Soil losses threaten farm productivity 203

Wind and water cause widespread erosion 204

Desertification affects arid-land soils 206

Irrigation is needed but can be inefficient 206

Plants need nutrients, but not too much 206

Conventional farming uses abundant fossil fuels 207

Contours and ground cover reduce runoff 207

Erosion control measures protect, or even build, soils 208

Exploring Science Ancient Terra Preta Shows How to

Build Soils 209

Carbon farming could be a key climate action 209

10.3 PESTS AND PESTICIDES 210

Modern pesticides provide benefits but also

create health risks 211

Organophosphates and chlorinated hydrocarbons are

dominant pesticides 212

What Do You Think? Shade-Grown Coffee and Cocoa 212

Pesticides have profound environmental effects 215

POPs accumulate in remote places 216

Pesticides often impair human health 217

10.4 ORGANIC AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE 217

Can sustainable practices feed the world’s growing

population? 218

What does “organic” mean? 218

Strategic management can reduce pests 219

What Can You Do? Controlling Pests 219

Useful organisms can help us control pests 220

IPM uses a combination of techniques 221

Low-input agriculture aids farmers and their land 221

Consumers’ choices play an important role 222

What Do You Think? Community Farming 223

Data Analysis Graphing Changes in Pesticide Use 225

11 Biodiversity: Preserving Species 226

Case Study How Wolves Can Change Rivers 227

11.1 BIODIVERSITY AND THE SPECIES CONCEPT 228

What is biodiversity? 228

Species are defined in different ways 228

Molecular techniques are rewriting taxonomy 229

How many species are there? 229

Hot spots have exceptional biodiversity but are threatened 230

We benefit from biodiversity in many ways 231

Biodiversity provides ecological services and aesthetic

and cultural benefits 232

11.2 WHAT THREATENS BIODIVERSITY? 233

Mass extinctions appear in the fossil record 233

Are we entering a sixth extinction? 234

Habitat destruction is the principal HIPPO factor 234

Invasive species displace resident species 235

Pollution and population are direct human impacts 236

Climate change transforms ecosystems 237

Overharvesting results when there is a market for wild species 238

Exploring Science Where Are All the Insects? 239

Overharvesting is often illegal and involves endangered species 240

Island ecosystems are especially vulnerable to invasive species 240

11.3 ENDANGERED SPECIES PROTECTION 241

Hunting and fishing laws were the first biodiversity protections 241

The Endangered Species Act is a powerful tool for biodiversity

protection 241

Recovery plans rebuild populations of endangered species 242

Private land is vital for species protection 243

Endangered species protection is controversial 244

11.4 REBUILDING BIODIVERSITY 245

We can protect biodiversity locally 245

What Can You Do? You Can Help Preserve Biodiversity 246

Gap analysis promotes regional planning 246

International treaties try to control trade in species 246

Zoos can help preserve wildlife 247

Data Analysis Exploring Local Biodiversity 249

12 Biodiversity: Preserving Landscapes 250

Case Study Ecosystems in Transition 251

12.1 WORLD FORESTS 252

Boreal and tropical forests are most abundant 252

Forests provide valuable products 254

Tropical forests are especially threatened 255

Local and global demand drive deforestation 256

Indigenous groups often lead forest protection efforts 257

Exploring Science Palm Oil and Endangered Species 258

Debt-for-nature swaps and REDD use finance for protection 259

Logging threatens temperate forests 259

Global warming and fire are growing threats 260

What Can You Do? Lowering Your Forest Impacts 260

12.2 GRASSLANDS 261

Grazing can be sustainable or damaging 262

Overgrazing threatens U.S. rangelands 262

Ranchers are experimenting with new methods 263

12.3 PARKS AND PRESERVES 264

Some of the most important natural areas may be in your

neighborhood 264

Levels of protection vary in world preserves 264

“Paper parks” are not really protected 266

Marine ecosystems need greater protection 267

Conservation and economic development can work

together 268

Many preserves support traditional resource uses 268

What Can You Do? Being a Responsible Ecotourist 269

What Do You Think? Monuments Under Attack 270

Species survival can depend on preserve size 271

Data Analysis Global Forest Watch 273

13 Restoration Ecology 274

Case Study Restoring Coral Reefs 275

13.1 HELPING NATURE HEAL 276

Restoration projects range from modest to ambitious 277

Restore to what? 277

All restoration projects involve some

common components 278

Origins of restoration 279

Sometimes we can simply let nature heal itself 280

Native species often need help to become reestablished 281

13.2 RESTORATION IS GOOD FOR HUMAN ECONOMIES AND

CULTURES 282

Tree planting can improve our quality of life 283

Fire is often an important restoration tool 283

What Can You Do? Ecological Restoration in Your Own

Neighborhood 284

13.3 RESTORING PRAIRIES 286

Fire is also crucial for prairie restoration 286

Huge areas of shortgrass prairie are being preserved 287

Exploring Science The Monarch Highway 288

Bison help maintain prairies 290

13.4 RESTORING WETLANDS AND STREAMS 291

Restoring flow helps rivers heal 291

Replumbing the Everglades is one of the costliest restoration

efforts ever 292

Wetland mitigation is challenging 294

Wetland and stream restoration provide multiple benefits 294

13.5 HOW EFFECTIVE IS RESTORATION? 297

Severely degraded or polluted sites can be repaired or

reconstructed 297

Restoring function is more challenging 298

Data Analysis Concept Maps 300

14 Geology and Earth Resources 301

Case Study Salmon or Copper? 302

14.1 EARTH PROCESSES AND MINERALS 303

Earth is a dynamic planet 303

Tectonic processes move continents 304

Rocks are composed of minerals 305

Rocks and minerals are recycled constantly 306

Weathering breaks down rocks 307

14.2 EARTH RESOURCES 307

Metals are especially valuable resources 308

Fossil fuels originated as peat and plankton 308

Exploring Science Rare Earth Minerals 309

Conserving resources saves energy and materials 310

Resource substitution reduces demand 311

14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF RESOURCE EXTRACTION 311

Different mining techniques pose different risks to

water and air 312

Ore processing emits acids and metals 312

High-value minerals can support corruption 313

14.4 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS 314

What Do You Think? Should We Revise Mining Laws? 315

Earthquakes usually occur on plate margins 316

Human-induced earthquakes are becoming more common 317

Tsunamis can be more damaging than the earthquakes

that trigger them 317

Volcanoes eject gas and ash, as well as lava 318

Landslides and mass wasting can bury villages 319

Floods are the greatest geological hazard 319

Beaches erode easily, especially in storms 320

Data Analysis Mapping Geological Hazards 322

15 Climate Systems and Climate Change 323

Case Study Climate Action in California: No Longer Just

Talking About the Weather 324

15.1 WHAT IS THE ATMOSPHERE? 325

The land surface absorbs solar energy to warm our world 327

Greenhouse gases capture energy selectively 328

Atmospheric circulation redistributes energy 328

15.2 REGIONAL PATTERNS OF WEATHER 329

The Coriolis effect explains why winds seem to curve on

a weather map 329

Jet streams deflect weather systems 330

Ocean currents redistribute heat 331

Seasonal rain supports billions of people 332

Frontal systems occur where warm and cold air meet 332

Cyclonic storms can cause extensive damage 333

15.3 NATURAL CLIMATE VARIABILITY 334

Ice cores tell us about climate history 334

El Niño is an ocean–atmosphere cycle 335

15.4 ANTHROPOGENIC CLIMATE CHANGE 337

The IPCC assesses climate data for policymakers 337

Major greenhouse gases include CO2, CH4, and N2O 338

Exploring Science Black Carbon 339

Melting ice accelerates change 340

How do we know that recent change is caused by humans? 341

15.5 WHAT EFFECTS ARE WE SEEING? 341

Warming affects crops, health, and ecosystems 342

Climate change costs far more than prevention 343

Rising sea levels will flood many cities 344

Why do we still debate climate evidence? 344

15.6 CLIMATE ACTION 345

The Paris Climate Agreement establishes new goals 345

Drawdown strategies abound 345

What Do You Think? Unburnable Carbon 346

Carbon capture is needed 347

Economic solutions make progress possible 347

Wind, water, and solar could meet all our needs 348

What Can You Do? Climate Action 348

Adaptation is necessary 348

Data Analysis The U.S. National Climate Assessment 350

16 Air Pollution 351

Case Study Beijing Looks for Answers to Air Pollution 352

16.1 MAJOR POLLUTANTS IN OUR AIR 353

The Clean Air Act designates standard limits 354

Conventional pollutants are most abundant 354

Mercury, from coal, is particularly dangerous 359

What Do You Think? Politics, Public Health, and the

Minamata Convention 360

Carbon dioxide, methane, and halogens are key greenhouse

gases 361

Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) can cause cancer and nerve

damage 362

Indoor air can be worse than outdoor air 362

16.2 ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES 363

Temperature inversions trap pollutants 363

Wind currents carry pollutants worldwide 364

Exploring Science The Great London Smog and Pollution

Monitoring 365

Chlorine destroys ozone in the stratosphere 366

The Montreal Protocol was a resounding success 367

16.3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 368

How does pollution make us sick? 369

Sulfur and nitrogen emissions produce acid rain 369

Acid deposition damages ecosystems and infrastructure 370

16.4 POLLUTION CONTROL 371

Pollutants can be captured after combustion 371

What Can You Do? Reducing Pollution and

Saving Energy 371

Clean air legislation is controversial but effective 372

Clean air protections help the economy and public health 373

In developing areas, rapid growth can outpace pollution

controls 374

Air quality improves where controls are implemented 375

Data Analysis How Is the Air Quality in Your Town? 377

17 Water Use and Management 378

Case Study When Will Lake Mead Go Dry? 379

17.1 WATER RESOURCES 380

The hydrologic cycle constantly redistributes water 380

Water supplies are unevenly distributed 380

Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on earth 382

Glaciers, ice, and snow contain most surface fresh water 382

Groundwater stores large resources 383

Rivers, lakes, and wetlands cycle quickly 384

17.2 WATER AVAILABILITY AND USE 385

Many countries suffer water scarcity or water stress 385

The West has always had droughts 386

Water use is increasing 386

Agriculture dominates water use 387

Industry and households withdraw less but often contaminate

water 387

17.3 FRESHWATER SHORTAGES 388

Groundwater is an essential but declining resource 389

Groundwater overdrafts have long-term impacts 390

Diversion projects redistribute water 391

Exploring Science Measuring Invisible Water 392

Dams have diverse environmental and social impacts 393

Dams have a limited lifespan 394

Climate change threatens water supplies 395

Water is a growing cause of conflict 395

17.4 WATER CONSERVATION 396

Desalination is expensive but needed 396

Exploring Science How Does Desalination Work? 397

Domestic conservation has important impacts 397

What Can You Do? Saving Water and Preventing

Pollution 398

Recycling can reduce consumption 398

Prices and policies have often discouraged conservation 399

Data Analysis Graphing Global Water Stress and Scarcity 401

18 Water Pollution 402

Case Study India’s Holy River 403

18.1 WATER POLLUTION 404

Water pollution is anything that degrades water quality 404

Infectious agents, or pathogens, cause diseases 405

Low oxygen levels indicate nutrient contamination 406

Nutrient enrichment leads to cultural eutrophication 407

Eutrophication can cause toxic tides and “dead zones” 408

Heavy metals cause nerve damage 408

Acidic runoff can destroy aquatic ecosystems 409

Organic pollutants include drugs, pesticides, and industrial

products 409

Oil spills are common and often intentional 410

Sediment also degrades water quality 410

Thermal pollution threatens sensitive organisms 411

18.2 WATER QUALITY TODAY 412

The Clean Water Act protects our water 412

Nonpoint sources are difficult to control 412

Water pollution is especially serious in developing countries 413

Water treatment improves safety 414

Is bottled water safer? 415

Groundwater is hard to monitor and clean 415

There are few controls on ocean pollution 416

18.3 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 417

Controlling nonpoint sources requires land management 417

Combined sewer overflows pollute surface waters 418

Human waste disposal occurs naturally when

concentrations are low 418

Septic systems work in low densities 418

Municipal treatment plants remove pathogens 419

Low-cost systems use natural processes 420

Exploring Science Inexpensive Water Purification 421

Water remediation may involve containment, extraction, or

phytoremediation 421

“Living machines” use plants to capture contaminants 422

What Can You Do? Steps You Can Take to Improve

Water Quality 423

18.4 WATER LEGISLATION 423

The Clean Water Act was ambitious, bipartisan, and

largely successful 423

Clean water reauthorization remains contentious 424

A variety of rules protect water quality 425

Data Analysis Examining Pollution Sources 426

19 Conventional Energy 427

Case Study Oil and Politics 428

19.1 ENERGY RESOURCES AND USES 429

The future of energy is not the past 429

How do we describe energy? 429

Fossil fuels still supply most of the world’s energy 430

How much energy do we use? 430

19.2 COAL 431

Coal resources are greater than we can use 432

Coal use is declining in the United States and Europe 432

Is clean coal technology an option? 434

19.3 OIL 434

Extreme oil has extended our supplies 435

Refineries produce useful products and hazardous pollutants 436

Oil is a boom and bust industry 437

Indigenous groups have challenged pipelines 437

What Do You Think? Water Protectors at Standing Rock 438

19.4 NATURAL GAS 439

Most of the world’s currently known natural gas is in a few

countries 439

Fracking has expanded gas supplies 440

Getting gas to market is a challenge 441

What Do You Think? The Fracking Debate 442

Methane hydrates occur in deep ocean sediment 442

19.5 NUCLEAR POWER 443

How do nuclear reactors work? 443

Reactor designs vary in safety 445

Breeder reactors could extend the life of our nuclear fuel 446

We lack safe storage for radioactive wastes 446

Decommissioning nuclear plants is costly 447

Opinions about nuclear futures vary 447

Data Analysis Comparing Energy Use and Standards of

Living 449

20 Sustainable Energy 450

Case Study A Renewable Energy Transition 451

20.1 ENERGY EFFICIENCY 452

Energy conservation is the first step 452

Green buildings cut energy costs 453

Transportation could be far more efficient 454

Exploring Science Greening Gotham: Can New York Reach

Its 80 by 50 Goal? 455

What Can You Do? Steps You Can Take to Save Energy 457

20.2 SOLAR ENERGY 457

Solar thermal systems collect heat 457

Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly 459

Solar works at household or community scales 460

20.3 WIND 461

Capacity and efficiency are important questions in power

production 461

Wind could meet all our energy needs 462

Wind is a source of rural income 462

Do turbines kill birds? 463

20.4 HYDROPOWER, BIOMASS, AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY 464

Most hydroelectricity comes from large dams 464

Tides and waves contain significant energy 465

Biomass is an ancient and modern energy source 466

Methane from biomass can be clean and efficient 466

U.S. policy prioritizes ethanol and biodiesel 467

High-temperature geothermal produces electricity 468

20.5 WHAT DOES AN ENERGY TRANSITION LOOK LIKE? 468

The grid will need improvement 468

Storage options are changing rapidly 469

Fuel cells release electricity from chemical bonds 470

Heat pumps provide efficient, electric-powered cooling and

heating 470

Wind, water, and solar are good answers 471

Data Analysis Energy Units 474

21 Solid, Toxic, and Hazardous Waste 476

Case Study Plastic Seas 477

21.1 WHAT DO WE DO WITH WASTE? 478

The waste stream is everything we throw away 479

Open dumping releases trash into the air and water 479

Landfills receive most U.S. waste 480

We often export waste to countries ill-equipped to handle it 481

What Do You Think? Who Will Take Our Waste? 482

Incineration produces energy from trash 483

21.2 SHRINKING THE WASTE STREAM 484

Recycling saves raw materials 484

Separating recyclables keeps them usable 485

Less than 9 percent of plastics are recycled 485

Plastics bans are increasing 485

Compost and biogas are useful products 486

Appliances and e-waste must be demanufactured 486

Reuse is more efficient than recycling 487

What Can You Do? Reducing Waste 487

Reducing waste is the best option 488

21.3 HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC WASTES 488

Hazardous waste laws try to protect the public 489

Superfund sites are listed for federal cleanup 490

Brownfields present both liability and opportunity 491

What Can You Do? Alternatives to Hazardous

Household Chemicals 492

Hazardous waste can be recycled or contained 492

Substances can be converted to safer forms 492

Permanent storage is often needed 493

Exploring Science Phytoremediation: Cleaning Up Toxic

Waste with Plants 494

Data Analysis How Much Do You Know about

Recycling? 496

22 Urbanization and Sustainable Cities 497

Case Study Cities Show the Way in Climate

Policy 498

22.1 URBANIZATION 499

Cities have specialized functions 499

Large cities are expanding rapidly 500

Developing areas have urbanized rapidly 501

Push and pull factors motivate people to move to cities 502

22.2 URBAN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD 503

Pollution and water shortages affect developing cities 503

Exploring Science Sinking Cities Amid Rising Seas 504

Many cities lack adequate housing 505

22.3 URBAN CHALLENGES IN THE DEVELOPED WORLD 506

Urban sprawl consumes land and resources 506

Sprawl gains hidden subsidies from cities 507

Transportation is crucial in city development 508

Public transit can make cities more livable 509

22.4 SUSTAINABLE URBANISM AND SMART GROWTH 510

Garden cities and new towns were early examples of smart

growth 510

Mixed uses make cities more livable 510

Open-space design preserves landscapes 512

What Do You Think? Vauban: A Car-Free

Neighborhood 513

Data Analysis Plotting Urban and Economic Indicators 515

23 Ecological Economics 516

Case Study Using Economics to Fight Climate

Change 517

23.1 PERSPECTIVES ON THE ECONOMY 518

Can economic development be sustainable? 518

Resources can be renewable or nonrenewable 518

Classical economics examines supply and demand 520

Neoclassical economics emphasizes growth 521

23.2 ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS 522

Ecological economics accounts for the value of ecosystems 522

Ecosystem services include provisioning, regulating, and

aesthetic values 523

Exploring Science What’s the Value of Nature? 524

23.3 POPULATION, SCARCITY, AND TECHNOLOGY 525

Are we about to run out of fossil fuels? 525

Common property resources are a classic problem in

ecological economics 526

Scarcity can lead to innovation 527

Carrying capacity is not necessarily fixed 527

Prior assumptions shape our models of growth 528

23.4 MEASURING GROWTH 529

GNP is our dominant growth measure 529

Alternate measures account for well-being 529

Cost–benefit analysis aims to optimize benefits 530

23.5 CAN MARKETS REDUCE POLLUTION? 531

Sulfur dioxide trading offers a good model 532

Emissions trading rewards efficiency 532

Exploring Science Green Jobs Versus Fossil Fuels 533

Are carbon taxes a better answer? 534

23.6 GREEN DEVELOPMENT AND BUSINESS 534

International trade brings benefits but also intensifies

inequities 535

Microlending helps the poorest of the poor 535

Green business involves efficiency and creative solutions 536

Efficiency starts with product design 536

Green consumerism gives the public a voice 537

What Can You Do? Personally Responsible Economy 537

Environmental protection creates jobs 537

What Do You Think? Could We Have a Green New

Deal? 538

Data Analysis Evaluating the Limits to Growth 540

24 Environmental Policy, Law, and

Planning 541

Case Study Turtles Return to Archie Carr 542

24.1 BASIC CONCEPTS IN POLICY 543

Basic principles guide environmental policy 543

Money influences policy 544

Public awareness and action shape policy 544

Broad participation can defend diverse interests 545

Is top-down or bottom-up policy more effective? 545

24.2 MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 547

NEPA (1969) establishes public oversight 547

The Clean Air Act (1970) regulates air emissions 548

The Clean Water Act (1972) protects surface water 548

The Endangered Species Act (1973) protects both plants

and animals 549

The Superfund Act (1980) lists hazardous sites 550

24.3 HOW ARE POLICIES MADE? 550

Congress and legislatures vote on statutes (laws) 551

Legislative riders sidestep public debate 551

Lobbying influences government 551

Judges decide case law 552

Landmark cases have vast impacts 553

Law suits require legal standing 553

Criminal law prosecutes lawbreakers 554

Executive agencies make rules and enforce laws 554

Regulatory agencies oversee policies 555

Regulatory capture undermines agency work 555

How much government do we want? 556

24.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS 556

Countries are often motivated to participate 557

The UNFCCC seeks climate progress 558

The Paris Agreement set a 2°C goal 558

Global policies seek to protect biodiversity, air, and water 559

Enforcement often depends on national pride 559

Data Analysis Examine Your Environmental Laws 561

25 What Then Shall We Do? 562

Case Study The Dawn of a New Era 563

25.1 MAKING A DIFFERENCE 564

Environmental literacy has lasting importance 564

Citizen science lets everyone participate 565

Exploring Science Doing Citizen Science with eBird 566

Environmental careers range from engineering to

education to arts 566

Green business and technology are growing fast 567

25.2 WHAT CAN INDIVIDUALS DO? 567

All choices are environmental choices 568

What Can You Do? Reducing Your Impact 568

Green consumerism encourages corporations to have an

environmental conscience 569

You are a citizen, as well as a consumer 569

You can learn leadership 570

You can own this class 570

25.3 HOW CAN WE WORK TOGETHER? 570

National organizations influence policy 571

New players bring energy to policy making 572

International NGOs mobilize many people 572

25.4 CAMPUS GREENING 573

Schools provide environmental leadership 573

What Do You Think? Fossil Fuel Divestment 575

A green campus is an educational opportunity 575

25.5 SUSTAINABILITY IS A GLOBAL CHALLENGE 576

Sustainable development means social, environmental, and

economic goals 576

Data Analysis Campus Environmental Audit 579

Glossary 580

Periodic Table of the Elements 590

Index 591

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