Biopsychology, Eleventh Edition
By John P J Pinel & Steven J Barnes
Contents:
Preface 16
To The Student 22
About The Authors 22
Part One What Is Biopsychology?
1 Biopsychology As A Neuroscience 25
What Is Biopsychology, Anyway?
The Case Of Jimmie G., The Man Frozen In Time 27
Four Major Themes Of This Text 27
Thinking Creatively About Biopsychology 27 •
Clinical Implications 27 • The Evolutionary
Perspective 27 • Neuroplasticity 27
Emerging Themes Of This Text 28
Thinking About Epigenetics 28 • Consciousness 28
What Is Biopsychology? 28
Defining Biopsychology 28
What Are The Origins Of Biopsychology? 28
How Is Biopsychology Related To The Other Disciplines
Of Neuroscience? 29
What Types Of Research Characterize The Biopsychological
Approach? 29
Human And Nonhuman Subjects 29
Experiments And Nonexperiments 30
Experiments 30 • Quasiexperimental Studies 31 •
Case Studies 32
Pure And Applied Research 32
What Are The Divisions Of Biopsychology? 33
Physiological Psychology 34
Psychopharmacology 34
Neuropsychology 34
The Case Of Mr. R., The Student With A Brain Injury
Who Switched To Architecture 34
Psychophysiology 35
Cognitive Neuroscience 35
Comparative Psychology 36
How Do Biopsychologists Conduct Their Work? 37
Converging Operations: How Do Biopsychologists
Work Together? 37
Scientific Inference: How Do Biopsychologists Study
The Unobservable Workings Of The Brain? 38
Thinking Critically About Biopsychological Claims 39
Evaluating Biopsychological Claims 40
Case 1: José And The Bull 40
Case 2: Two Chimpanzees, Moniz, And The Prefrontal
Lobotomy 40
Themes Revisited 42 • Key Terms 43
Part Two Foundations Of Biopsychology
2 Evolution, Genetics, And Experience 44
Thinking About The Biology Of Behavior
Thinking About The Biology Of Behavior: From
Dichotomies To Interactions 45
The Origins Of Dichotomous Thinking 45
Is It Physiological, Or Is It Psychological? 45 •
Is It Inherited, Or Is It Learned? 46
Problems With Thinking About The Biology Of Behavior
In Terms Of Traditional Dichotomies 46
Physiological-Or-Psychological Thinking Runs
Into Difficulty 46
The Case Of The Man Who Fell Out Of Bed 47
The Case Of The Chimps With Mirrors 47
Nature-Or-Nurture Thinking Runs Into Difficulty 48
The Case Of The Thinking Student 48
A Model Of The Biology Of Behavior 48
Human Evolution 49
Darwin’s Theory Of Evolution 49
Evolution And Behavior 51
Social Dominance 51 • Courtship Display 51
Course Of Human Evolution 52
Evolution Of Vertebrates 52 • Evolution Of
Amphibians 52 • Evolution Of Reptiles 52 • Evolution
Of Mammals 52 • Emergence Of Humankind 53
Thinking About Human Evolution 54
Evolution Of The Human Brain 56
Fundamental Genetics 58
Mendelian Genetics 58
Chromosomes 59
Reproduction And Recombination 59 • Structure
And Replication 60 • Sex Chromosomes And
Sex-Linked Traits 61
Genetic Code And Gene Expression 61
Human Genome Project 63
Modern Genetics: Growth Of Epigenetics 63
Epigenetics Of Behavioral Development: Interaction
Of Genetic Factors And Experience 66
Selective Breeding Of “Maze-Bright” And “Maze-Dull” Rats 66
Phenylketonuria: A Single-Gene Metabolic Disorder 67
Genetics Of Human Psychological Differences 68
Development Of Individuals Versus Development
Of Differences Among Individuals 68
Heritability Estimates: Minnesota Study Of
Twins Reared Apart 68
A Look Into The Future: Two Kinds Of Twin Studies 69
Twin Studies Of Epigenetic Effects 69 • Twin Studies
Of The Effects Of Experience On Heritability 70
Themes Revisited 70 • Key Terms 71
3 Anatomy Of The Nervous System 72
Systems, Structures, And Cells That Make Up
Your Nervous System
General Layout Of The Nervous System 73
Divisions Of The Nervous System 73
Meninges 74
Ventricles And Cerebrospinal Fluid 75
Blood–Brain Barrier 76
Cells Of The Nervous System 77
Anatomy Of Neurons 77
Neuron Cell Membrane 77 • Classes Of Neurons 77 •
Neurons And Neuroanatomical Structure 78
Glia: The Forgotten Cells 80
Neuroanatomical Techniques And Directions 82
Neuroanatomical Techniques 82
Golgi Stain 82 • Nissl Stain 82 • Electron
Microscopy 82 • Neuroanatomical Tracing
Techniques 83
Directions In The Vertebrate Nervous System 84
Anatomy Of The Central Nervous System 86
Spinal Cord 86
Five Major Divisions Of The Brain 86
Myelencephalon 87
Metencephalon 87
Mesencephalon 88
Diencephalon 88
Telencephalon 90
Cerebral Cortex 90
Limbic System And The Basal Ganglia 92
Themes Revisited 95 • Key Terms 95
4 Neural Conduction And Synaptic
Transmission 97
How Neurons Send And Receive Signals
The Lizard: A Case Of Parkinson’s Disease 98
Resting Membrane Potential 99
Recording The Membrane Potential 99
Ionic Basis Of The Resting Potential 99
Generation, Conduction, And Integration Of Postsynaptic
Potentials 100
Generation And Conduction Of Postsynaptic Potentials 100
Integration Of Postsynaptic Potentials And Generation
Of Action Potentials 101
Conduction Of Action Potentials 104
Ionic Basis Of Action Potentials 104
Refractory Periods 105
Axonal Conduction Of Action Potentials 105
Conduction In Myelinated Axons 105 • The Velocity
Of Axonal Conduction 106 • Conduction In Neurons
Without Axons 106
The Hodgkin-Huxley Model In Perspective 106
Synaptic Transmission: From Electrical Signals
To Chemical Signals 107
Structure Of Synapses 107
Synthesis, Packaging, And Transport Of
Neurotransmitter Molecules 109
Release Of Neurotransmitter Molecules 109
Activation Of Receptors By Neurotransmitter
Molecules 109
Reuptake, Enzymatic Degradation, And Recycling 111
Glia, Gap Junctions, And Synaptic Transmission 112
Neurotransmitters 114
Overview Of The Neurotransmitter Classes 114
The Roles And Functions Of Neurotransmitters 114
Amino Acid Neurotransmitters 114 • Monoamine
Neurotransmitters 114 • Acetylcholine 114 •
Unconventional Neurotransmitters 114 •
Neuropeptides 116
Pharmacology Of Synaptic Transmission And Behavior 116
How Drugs Influence Synaptic Transmission 116
Behavioral Pharmacology: Three Influential Lines
Of Research 117
Wrinkles And Darts: Discovery Of Receptor
Subtypes 117 • Pleasure And Pain: Discovery Of
Endogenous Opioids 119 • Tremors And Mental Illness:
Discovery Of Antipsychotic Drugs 119
Themes Revisited 120 • Key Terms 120
5 The Research Methods
Of Biopsychology 121
Understanding What Biopsychologists Do
The Ironic Case Of Professor P. 123
Part One Methods Of Studying The Nervous System 123
Methods Of Visualizing And Stimulating The
Living Human Brain 123
X-Ray-Based Techniques 124
Contrast X-Rays 124 • Computed Tomography 124
Radioactivity-Based Techniques 125
Magnetic-Field-Based Techniques 125
Magnetic Resonance Imaging 125 • Diffusion
Tensor Mri 126 • Functional Mri 126
Ultrasound-Based Techniques 127
Transcranial Stimulation 127
Recording Human Psychophysiological Activity 128
Psychophysiological Measures Of Brain Activity 128
Scalp Electroencephalography 128 •
Magnetoencephalography 130
Psychophysiological Measures Of Somatic Nervous
System Activity 130
Muscle Tension 130 • Eye Movement 130
Psychophysiological Measures Of Autonomic
Nervous System Activity 131
Skin Conductance 131 • Cardiovascular Activity 131
Invasive Physiological Research Methods 132
Stereotaxic Surgery 132
Lesion Methods 133
Aspiration Lesions 133 • Radio-Frequency
Lesions 133 • Knife Cuts 133 • Reversible
Lesions 133 • Interpreting Lesion Effects 133 •
Bilateral And Unilateral Lesions 134
Electrical Stimulation 134
Invasive Electrophysiological Recording Methods 134
Intracellular Unit Recording 134 • Extracellular
Unit Recording 134 • Multiple-Unit Recording 135 •
Invasive Eeg Recording 135
Pharmacological Research Methods 135
Routes Of Drug Administration 136
Selective Chemical Lesions 136
Measuring Chemical Activity Of The Brain 136
2-Deoxyglucose Technique 136 • Cerebral Dialysis 136
Locating Neurotransmitters And Receptors In
The Brain 137
Immunocytochemistry 137 • In Situ Hybridization 137
Genetic Methods 137
Gene Knockout Techniques 138
Gene Knockin Techniques 138
Gene Editing Techniques 138
Fantastic Fluorescence And The Brainbow 139
Optogenetics: A Neural Light Switch 139
Part Two Behavioral Research Methods
Of Biopsychology 141
Neuropsychological Testing 141
Modern Approach To Neuropsychological Testing 141
The Single-Test Approach 141 • The Standardizedtest-
Battery Approach 141 • The Customized-Testbattery
Approach 142
Tests Of The Common Neuropsychological Test Battery 142
Intelligence 142 • Memory 142 • Language 142 •
Language Lateralization 143
Tests Of Specific Neuropsychological Function 143
Memory 143 • Language 143
Behavioral Methods Of Cognitive Neuroscience 144
The Case Of The Vegetative Patient 144
Paired-Image Subtraction Technique 144
Default Mode Network 145
Mean Difference Images 145
Functional Connectivity 146
Biopsychological Paradigms Of Animal Behavior 146
Paradigms For The Assessment Of Species-Common
Behaviors 146
Open-Field Test 146 • Tests Of Aggressive And
Defensive Behavior 146 • Tests Of Sexual Behavior 146
Traditional Conditioning Paradigms 147
Seminatural Animal Learning Paradigms 147
Conditioned Taste Aversion 147 • Radial Arm
Maze 148 • Morris Water Maze 148 • Conditioned
Defensive Burying 148
Thinking Creatively About Biopsychological Research 148
Themes Revisited 149 • Key Terms 150
Part Three Sensory And Motor Systems
6 The Visual System 151
How We See
The Case Of Mrs. Richards: Fortification Illusions
And The Astronomer 153
Light Enters The Eye And Reaches The Retina 154
Pupil And Lens 154
Eye Position And Binocular Disparity 155
The Retina And Translation Of Light Into
Neural Signals 157
Structure Of The Retina 157
Cone And Rod Vision 158
Spectral Sensitivity 160
Eye Movement 161
Visual Transduction: The Conversion Of Light
To Neural Signals 162
From Retina To Primary Visual Cortex 163
Retina-Geniculate-Striate System 163
Retinotopic Organization 164
The M And P Channels 164
Seeing Edges 165
Contrast Enhancement 165
Receptive Fields Of Visual Neurons: Hubel & Wiesel 166
Receptive Fields Of The Retina-Geniculate-Striate
System: Hubel & Wiesel 166
Receptive Fields Of Primary Visual Cortex Neurons:
Hubel & Wiesel 167
Simple Striate Cells 168 • Complex Striate
Cells 168 • Binocular Complex Striate Cells 168
Organization Of Primary Visual Cortex: Hubel &
Wiesel’s Findings 168
The Case Of Mrs. Richards, Revisited 169
Changing Concept Of The Characteristics Of
Visual Receptive Fields 169
Retinal Ganglion Cells 169 • Lateral Geniculate
Cells 169
Changing Concept Of Visual Receptive Fields:
Contextual Influences In Visual Processing 169
Seeing Color 170
Component And Opponent Processing 170
Color Constancy And The Retinex Theory 172
Cortical Mechanisms Of Vision And Conscious
Awareness 173
Three Different Classes Of Visual Cortex 174
Damage To Primary Visual Cortex: Scotomas And
Completion 174
The Physiological Psychologist Who Made Faces
Disappear 175
The Case Of D.B., The Man Confused By His
Own Blindsight 175
Functional Areas Of Secondary And Association
Visual Cortex 176
Dorsal And Ventral Streams 176
D.F., The Woman Who Could Grasp Objects
She Did Not Consciously See 178
A.T., The Woman Who Could Not Accurately
Grasp Unfamiliar Objects That She Saw 178
Prosopagnosia 179
Is Prosopagnosia Specific To Faces? 179
R.P., A Typical Prosopagnosic 179
What Brain Pathology Is Associated With
Prosopagnosia?
179 • Can Prosopagnosics Perceive
Faces In The Absence Of Conscious Awareness? 180
Akinetopsia 180
Two Cases Of Drug-Induced Akinetopsia 180
Themes Revisited 181 • Key Terms 181
7 Sensory Systems, Perception,
And Attention 183
How You Know The World
The Case Of The Man Who Could See Only One
Thing At A Time 185
Principles Of Sensory System Organization 185
Types Of Sensory Areas Of Cortex 185
Features Of Sensory System Organization 185
Case Of The Man Who Mistook His Wife For A Hat 186
Functional Segregation 186 • Parallel
Processing 186 • Summary Model Of Sensory
System Organization 186
Auditory System 187
Physical And Perceptual Dimensions Of Sound 187
The Ear 188
From The Ear To The Primary Auditory Cortex 189
Auditory Cortex 189
Organization Of Primate Auditory Cortex 190 •
What Sounds Should Be Used To Study Auditory
Cortex? 190 • What Analyses Does The Auditory
Cortex Perform? 191 • Two Streams Of Auditory
Cortex 191 • Auditory–Visual Interactions 191 •
Where Does The Perception Of Pitch Occur? 191
Effects Of Damage To The Auditory System 192
Auditory Cortex Damage 192 • Deafness
In Humans 192
Somatosensory System: Touch And Pain 194
Cutaneous Receptors 194
Two Major Somatosensory Pathways 194
Cortical Areas Of Somatosensation 195
Effects Of Damage To The Primary Somatosensory
Cortex 197
Somatosensory System And Association Cortex 198
The Case Of W.M., Who Reduced His Scotoma
With His Hand 198
Somatosensory Agnosias 198
The Case Of Aunt Betty, Who Lost Half Of Her Body 198
Rubber-Hand Illusion 199
Perception Of Pain 199
Pain Is Adaptive 199
The Case Of Miss C., The Woman Who Felt No Pain 199
Pain Has No Clear Cortical Representation 200 •
Pain Is Modulated By Cognition And Emotion 200
Neuropathic Pain 201
Chemical Senses: Smell And Taste 202
Adaptive Roles Of The Chemical Senses 202
Olfactory System 202
Gustatory System 204
Brain Damage And The Chemical Senses 205
Perception 206
Role Of Prior Experience In Perception 206
Perceptual Decision Making 206
The Binding Problem 207
Selective Attention 208
Characteristics Of Selective Attention 208
Change Blindness 209
Neural Mechanisms Of Attention 210
Simultanagnosia 210
Themes Revisited 211 • Key Terms 211
8 The Sensorimotor System 212
How You Move
The Case Of Rhonelle, The Dexterous Cashier 214
Three Principles Of Sensorimotor Function 214
The Sensorimotor System Is Hierarchically Organized 214
Motor Output Is Guided By Sensory Input 215
The Case Of G.O., The Man With Too Little Feedback 215
Learning Changes The Nature And Locus Of
Sensorimotor Control 215
General Model Of Sensorimotor System Function 215
Sensorimotor Association Cortex 216
Posterior Parietal Association Cortex 216
The Case Of Mrs. S., The Woman Who Turned
In Circles 217
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association Cortex 218
Secondary Motor Cortex 219
Identifying The Areas Of Secondary Motor Cortex 219
Mirror Neurons 219
Primary Motor Cortex 221
Conventional View Of Primary Motor Cortex
Function 221
Current View Of Primary Motor Cortex Function 222
Belle: The Monkey That Controlled A Robot
With Her Mind 222
Effects Of Primary Motor Cortex Lesions 223
Cerebellum And Basal Ganglia 223
Cerebellum 223
Basal Ganglia 223
Descending Motor Pathways 224
The Two Dorsolateral Motor Pathways And
The Two Ventromedial Motor Pathways 225
Sensorimotor Spinal Circuits 225
Muscles 225
Receptor Organs Of Tendons And Muscles 226
Stretch Reflex 227
Withdrawal Reflex 228
Reciprocal Innervation 228
Recurrent Collateral Inhibition 230
Walking: A Complex Sensorimotor Reflex 230
Central Sensorimotor Programs And Learning 231
A Hierarchy Of Central Sensorimotor Programs 231
Characteristics Of Central Sensorimotor Programs 231
Central Sensorimotor Programs Are Capable Of
Motor Equivalence 231 • Sensory Information
That Controls Central Sensorimotor Programs
Is Not Necessarily Conscious 231 • Central
Sensorimotor Programs Can Develop Without
Practice 232 • Practice Can Create Central
Sensorimotor Programs 232
Functional Brain Imaging Of Sensorimotor Learning 233
Neuroplasticity Associated With Sensorimotor
Learning 234
The Case Of Rhonelle, Revisited 234
Themes Revisited 234 • Key Terms 234
Part Four Brain Plasticity
9 Development Of The Nervous System 236
From Fertilized Egg To You
The Case Of Genie 238
Five Phases Of Early Neurodevelopment 238
Stem Cells And Neurodevelopment 238
Induction Of The Neural Plate 239
Neural Proliferation 240
Migration And Aggregation 240
Migration 240 • Aggregation 242
Axon Growth And Synapse Formation 242
Axon Growth 242 • Synapse Formation 244
Neuron Death And Synapse Rearrangement 245
Synapse Rearrangement 246
Early Cerebral Development In Humans 246
Prenatal Growth Of The Human Brain 247
Postnatal Growth Of The Human Brain 247
Development Of The Prefrontal Cortex 248
Effects Of Experience On Postnatal Development
Of Neural Circuits 248
Critical Periods Vs. Sensitive Periods 248
Early Studies Of Experience And Neurodevelopment:
Deprivation And Enrichment 249
Experience And Neurodevelopment 249
Ocular Dominance Columns 249 • Topographic
Sensory Cortex Maps 250
Neuroplasticity In Adults 250
Neurogenesis In Adult Mammals 250
Effects Of Experience On Adult Neurogenesis 251 •
Functions Of Newly Born Neurons In The
Adult Brain 251
Effects Of Experience On The Reorganization
Of The Adult Cortex 252
Atypical Neurodevelopment: Autism Spectrum
Disorder And Williams Syndrome 252
Autism Spectrum Disorder 253
Asd Is A Heterogeneous Disorder 253
The Case Of Alex: Are You Ready To Rock? 253
The Case Of S.D.: The Self-Advocate 253
Asd Savants 254
Cases Of Amazing Savant Abilities 254
Genetic Mechanisms Of Asd 254 • Neural
Mechanisms Of Asd 254
Williams Syndrome 255
The Case Of Anne Louise Mcgarrah: Uneven Abilities 255
Epilogue 256
Themes Revisited 257 • Key Terms 257
Part Five Biopsychology Of Motivation
10 Brain Damage And Neuroplasticity 258
Can The Brain Recover From Damage?
The Ironic Case Of Professor P. 259
Causes Of Brain Damage 260
Brain Tumors 260
Strokes 261
Cerebral Hemorrhage 261 • Cerebral Ischemia 262
Traumatic Brain Injuries 262
The Case Of Junior Seau 264
Infections Of The Brain 264
Bacterial Infections 264 • Viral Infections 264
Neurotoxins 265
Genetic Factors 265
Programmed Cell Death 265
Neurological Diseases 266
Epilepsy 266
Focal Seizures 267
The Subtlety Of Complex Seizures: Two Cases 267
Generalized Seizures 267
Parkinson’s Disease 268
Huntington’s Disease 269
Multiple Sclerosis 270
Alzheimer’s Disease 271
Animal Models Of Human Neurological Diseases 274
Kindling Model Of Epilepsy 274
Mptp Model Of Parkinson’s Disease 275
The Case Of The Frozen Drug Users 275
Responses To Nervous System Damage:
Degeneration, Regeneration, Reorganization,
And Recovery 275
Neural Degeneration 275
Neural Regeneration 276
Neural Reorganization 278
Cortical Reorganization Following Damage
In Laboratory Animals 278 • Cortical Reorganization
Following Damage In Humans 278 • Mechanisms
Of Neural Reorganization 279
Recovery Of Function After Cns Damage 280
Neuroplasticity And The Treatment
Of Cns Damage 280
Neurotransplantation As A Treatment For
Cns Damage: Early Research 281
The Case Of Roberto Garcia D’orta: The Lizard
Gets An Autotransplant 281
Modern Research On Neurotransplantation 282
Promoting Recovery From Cns Damage
By Rehabilitative Training 282
Treating Strokes 282 • Treating Spinal Injury 283 •
Benefits Of Cognitive And Physical Exercise 283 •
Treating Phantom Limbs 283
Cases Of Carlos And Philip: Phantom Limbs And
Ramachandran 284
The Ironic Case Of Professor P.: Recovery 284
Themes Revisited 285 • Key Terms 285
11 Learning, Memory, And Amnesia 287
How Your Brain Stores Information
Amnesic Effects Of Bilateral Medial Temporal Lobectomy 289
The Case Of H.M., The Man Who Changed The Study Of
Memory 289
Formal Assessment Of H.M.’S Anterograde Amnesia:
Discovery
Of Unconscious Memories 290
Digit-Span + 1 Test 290 • Block-Tapping Test 290 •
Mirror-Drawing Test 290 • Incomplete-Pictures
Test 291 • Pavlovian Conditioning 291
Three Major Scientific Contributions Of H.M.’S Case 291
Medial Temporal Lobe Amnesia 292
Semantic And Episodic Memories 292
The Case Of K.C., The Man Who Can’t Time Travel 293
The Case Of The Clever Neuropsychologist: Spotting
Episodic
Memory Deficits 293
Effects Of Global Cerebral Ischemia On The
Hippocampus And Memory 294
The Case Of R.B., Product Of A Bungled Operation 294
Amnesias Of Korsakoff’s Syndrome And
Alzheimer’s Disease 295
Amnesia Of Korsakoff’s Syndrome 295
The Up-Your-Nose Case Of N.A. 295
Amnesia Of Alzheimer’s Disease 295
Amnesia After Traumatic Brain Injury: Evidence
For Consolidation 296
Posttraumatic Amnesia 296
Gradients Of Retrograde Amnesia And Memory
Consolidation 296
Hippocampus And Consolidation 297 •
Reconsolidation 298
Evolving Perspective Of The Role Of The Hippocampus In
Memory 298
Animal Models Of Object-Recognition Amnesia:
The Delayed Nonmatching-To-Sample Test 299
Monkey Version Of The Delayed Nonmatching-Tosample
Test 299 • Rat Version Of The Delayed
Non-Matching-To-Sample Test 300
Neuroanatomical Basis Of The Object-Recognition
Deficits Resulting From Bilateral Medial Temporal
Lobectomy 302
Neurons Of The Medial Temporal Lobes And Memory 303
Morris Water Maze Test 303 • Radial Arm Maze Test 303
Hippocampal Place Cells And Entorhinal Grid Cells 304
The Hippocampus As A Cognitive Map 305
Jennifer Aniston Neurons: Concept Cells 305
Engram Cells 306
Where Are Memories Stored? 306
Five Brain Areas Implicated In Memory 306
Inferotemporal Cortex 306 • Amygdala 307 •
Prefrontal Cortex 307
The Case Of The Cook Who Couldn’t 308
Cerebellum And Striatum 308
Cellular Mechanisms Of Learning And Memory 309
Synaptic Mechanisms Of Learning And Memory:
Long-Term Potentiation 309
Induction Of Ltp: Learning 311
Maintenance And Expression Of Ltp: Storage
And Recall 312
Variability Of Ltp 312
Nonsynaptic Mechanisms Of Learning
And Memory 313
Conclusion: Biopsychology Of Memory And You 313
Infantile Amnesia 313
Smart Drugs: Do They Work? 313
Posttraumatic Amnesia And Episodic Memory 314
The Case Of R.M., The Biopsychologist Who
Remembered H.M. 314
Themes Revisited 314 • Key Terms 315
12 Hunger, Eating, And Health 316
Why Do So Many People Eat Too Much?
The Case Of The Man Who Forgot Not To Eat 318
Digestion, Energy Storage, And Energy Utilization 318
Digestion And Energy Storage In The Body 318
Digestion 318 • Energy Storage In
The Body 318
Three Phases Of Energy Metabolism 319
Theories Of Hunger And Eating: Set Points
Versus Positive Incentives 320
Set-Point Assumption 320
Glucostatic Theory 322 • Lipostatic Theory 322 •
Problems With Set-Point Theories Of Hunger
And Eating 322
Positive-Incentive Perspective 323
Factors That Determine What, When, And How
Much We Eat 323
Factors That Influence What We Eat 323
Learned Taste Preferences And Aversions 323 •
Learning To Eat Vitamins And Minerals 324
Factors That Influence When We Eat 324
Premeal Hunger 324 • Pavlovian Conditioning
Of Hunger 324
Factors That Influence How Much We Eat 324
Satiety Signals 325 • Sham Eating 325 •
Appetizer Effect And Satiety 325 • Serving Size
And Satiety 325 • Social Influences And
Satiety 325 • Sensory-Specific Satiety 325
Physiological Research On Hunger And Satiety 327
Role Of Blood Glucose Levels In Hunger And Satiety 327
Evolution Of Research On The Role Of Hypothalamic
Nuclei In Hunger And Satiety 327
The Myth Of Hypothalamic Hunger And Satiety
Centers 327 • Modern Research On The Role Of
Hypothalamic Nuclei In Hunger And Satiety 328
Role Of The Gastrointestinal Tract In Satiety 328
Hypothalamic Circuits, Peptides, And The Gut 330
Serotonin And Satiety 330
Prader-Willi Syndrome: Patients With Insatiable
Hunger 331
Prader-Willi Syndrome: The Case Of Miss A. 331
Body-Weight Regulation: Set Points Versus Settling Points 331
Set-Point Assumptions About Body Weight
And Eating 331
Variability Of Body Weight 331 • Set Points And
Health 331
Regulation Of Body Weight By Changes In The
Efficiency Of Energy Utilization 332
Set Points And Settling Points In Weight Control 333
Human Overeating: Causes, Mechanisms,
And Treatments 335
Overeating: Who Needs To Be Concerned? 335
Overeating: Why Is There An Epidemic? 335
Why Do Some People Gain Weight From
Overeating While Others Do Not? 336
Differences In Energy Expenditure 336 •
Differences In Gut Microbiome Composition 336 •
Genetic And Epigenetic Factors 336
Why Are Weight-Loss Programs Often Ineffective? 337
Leptin And The Regulation Of Body Fat 337
The Discovery Of Leptin 338 • Leptin, Insulin,
And The Arcuate Melanocortin System 338 •
Leptin As A Treatment For High Body-Fat Levels
In Humans 338
The Case Of The Child With No Leptin 339
Treatment Of Overeating And High Body-Fat Levels 339
Serotonergic Agonists 339 • Gastric Surgery 339
Anorexia And Bulimia Nervosa 340
Anorexia And Bulimia Nervosa 340
Anorexia Nervosa 340 • Bulimia Nervosa 340
Relation Between Anorexia And Bulimia 340
Anorexia And Positive Incentives 341
Anorexia Nervosa: A Hypothesis 341
The Case Of The Student With Anorexia 342
Themes Revisited 342 • Key Terms 343
13 Hormones And Sex 344
What’s Wrong With The Mamawawa?
Men-Are-Men-And-Women-Are-Women Assumption 346 •
Developmental And Activational Effects Of Sex
Hormones 346
Neuroendocrine System 346
Glands 346
Gonads 347
Hormones 347
Sex Steroids 347
The Pituitary 348
Female Gonadal Hormone Levels Are Cyclic;
Male Gonadal Hormone Levels Are Steady 348
Control Of The Pituitary 348
Control Of The Anterior And Posterior Pituitary
By The Hypothalamus 349
Discovery Of Hypothalamic Releasing Hormones 349
Regulation Of Hormone Levels 350
Regulation By Neural Signals 350 • Regulation By
Hormonal Signals 350 • Regulation By Nonhormonal
Chemicals 351 • Pulsatile Hormone Release 351
Summary Model Of Gonadal Endocrine Regulation 351
Hormones And Sexual Development Of The Body 351
Sexual Differentiation 351
Fetal Hormones And Development Of Reproductive
Organs 352 • Internal Reproductive Ducts 352 •
External Reproductive Organs 353
Puberty: Hormones And Development Of Secondary
Sex Characteristics 353
Sexual Development Of Brain And Behavior 354
Sex Differences In The Brain 355
First Discovery Of A Sex Difference In Mammalian
Brain Function 355 • Aromatization Hypothesis 355 •
Sex Differences In The Brain: The Modern
Perspective 356
Development Of Sex Differences In Behavior 356
Development Of Reproductive Behaviors In
Laboratory Animals 357 • Development Of
Sex Differences In The Behavior Of Humans 357
Three Cases Of Exceptional Human Sexual Development 358
Exceptional Cases Of Human Sexual Development 359
The Case Of Anne S., The Woman With Testes 359
The Case Of The Little Girl Who Grew Into A Boy 359
The Case Of The Twin Who Lost His Penis 360
Do The Exceptional Cases Prove The Rule? 361
Effects Of Gonadal Hormones On Adults 361
Male Sexual Behavior And Gonadal Hormones 361
The Case Of The Man Who Lost And Regained
His Manhood 362
Female Sexual Behavior And Gonadal Hormones 362
Anabolic Steroid Abuse 363
Brain Mechanisms Of Sexual Behavior 364
Four Brain Structures Associated With Sexual Activity 364
Cortex And Sexual Activity 365 • Hypothalamus
And Sexual Activity 365 • Amygdala And Sexual
Activity 366 • Ventral Striatum And Sexual Activity 366
Sexual Orientation And Gender Identity 367
Sexual Orientation 367
Sexual Orientation And Genes 367 • Sexual
Orientation And Early Hormones 367
What Triggers The Development Of Sexual Attraction? 368
What Differences In The Brain Can Account For
Differences In Sexual Attraction? 368
Gender Identity 368
Independence Of Sexual Orientation And
Gender Identity 368
Themes Revisited 369 • Key Terms 370
14 Sleep, Dreaming, And Circadian
Rhythms 371
How Much Do You Need To Sleep?
The Case Of The Woman Who Wouldn’t Sleep 374
Stages Of Sleep 374
Three Standard Psychophysiological Measures
Of Sleep 374
Three Stages Of Sleep Eeg 374
Dreaming 376
Discovery Of The Relationship Between
Rem Sleep And Dreaming 376
Testing Common Beliefs About Dreaming 376
External Stimuli And Dreams 376 • Dream
Duration 376 • People Who Don’t Dream 376 •
Sexual Content In Dreams 376 • Sleeptalking And Sleepwalking 377
Does Rem Sleep = Dreaming? 377
Lucid Dreaming 377
The Case Of The Levitating Teenager 377
The Case Of The Artistic Dreamer 377
The Case Of The Bored Lucid Dreamer 378
Why Do We Dream What We Do? 378
Why Do We Dream? 379
Hobson’s Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis 379 •
Revonsuo’s Evolutionary Theory Of Dreams 379 •
Hobson’s Protoconsciousness Hypothesis 379
The Dreaming Brain 380
Why Do We Sleep, And Why Do We Sleep When We Do? 381
Two Kinds Of Theories Of Sleep 381
Comparative Analysis Of Sleep 381
Effects Of Sleep Deprivation 382
Interpretation Of The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation:
The Stress Problem 383
Predictions Of Recuperation Theories About Sleep
Deprivation 383
Two Classic Sleep-Deprivation Case Studies 383
The Case Of The Sleep-Deprived Students 383
The Case Of Randy Gardner 383
Studies Of Sleep Deprivation In Humans 384
Sleep-Deprivation Studies Of Laboratory Animals 385
Rem-Sleep Deprivation 385
Sleep Deprivation Increases The Efficiency Of Sleep 387
Circadian Sleep Cycles 388
Free-Running Circadian Sleep–Wake Cycles 388
Jet Lag And Shift Work 389
A Circadian Clock In The Suprachiasmatic Nuclei 389
Neural Mechanisms Of Entrainment 390
Genetics Of Circadian Rhythms 391
Four Areas Of The Brain Involved In Sleep 391
Two Areas Of The Hypothalamus Involved In Sleep 391
The Case Of Constantin Von Economo,
The Insightful Neurologist 392
Reticular Formation And Sleep 392
Reticular Rem-Sleep Nuclei 393
Drugs That Affect Sleep 395
Hypnotic Drugs 395
Antihypnotic Drugs 395
Melatonin 395
Sleep Disorders 396
Insomnia 397
Mr. B., The Case Of Iatrogenic Insomnia 397
Hypersomnia 398
Rem-Sleep-Related Disorders 399
The Case Of The Sleeper Who Ran Over Tackle 399
Effects Of Long-Term Sleep Reduction 399
Differences Between Short And Long Sleepers 399
Long-Term Reduction Of Nightly Sleep 400
Long-Term Sleep Reduction By Napping 400
Effects Of Shorter Sleep Times On Health 401
Long-Term Sleep Reduction: A Personal Case Study 401
The Case Of The Author Who Reduced His Sleep 401
Themes Revisited 402 • Key Terms 403
15 Drug Use, Drug Addiction,
And The Brain’s Reward Circuits 404
Chemicals That Harm With Pleasure
The Case Of The Drugged High School Teachers 406
Basic Principles Of Drug Action 406
Drug Administration, Absorption, And Penetration
Of The Central Nervous System 406
Oral Ingestion 406 • Injection 406 • Inhalation 406 •
Absorption Through Mucous Membranes 406
Drug Action, Metabolism, And Elimination 406
Drug Penetration Of The Central Nervous
System 406 • Mechanisms Of Drug Action 406 •
Drug Metabolism And Elimination 407
Drug Tolerance, Drug Withdrawal Effects,
And Physical Dependence 407
Drug Tolerance 407 • Drug Withdrawal
Effects And Physical Dependence 407
Drug Addiction: What Is It? 408
Role Of Learning In Drug Tolerance 409
Contingent Drug Tolerance 409
Conditioned Drug Tolerance 409
Thinking About Drug Conditioning 411
Five Commonly Used Drugs 411
Nicotine 411
Tobacco Smoking 412 • Nicotine Vaping 412 •
Addiction And Nicotine 412
Alcohol 413
Marijuana 414
Cocaine And Other Stimulants 417
The Opioids: Heroin And Morphine 418
Comparing The Health Hazards Of Commonly
Used Drugs 420
Interpreting Studies Of The Health Hazards Of Drugs 420
Comparison Of The Hazards Of Nicotine, Alcohol,
Marijuana, Cocaine, And Heroin 421
Early Biopsychological Research On Addiction 422
Physical-Dependence And Positive-Incentive
Perspectives Of Addiction 422
Intracranial Self-Stimulation And The
Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System 423
Early Evidence Of The Involvement Of Dopamine
In Drug Addiction 424
Nucleus Accumbens And Drug Addiction 425
Current Approaches To The Mechanisms
Of Addiction 425
Three Stages In The Development Of An Addiction 426
Initial Drug Taking 426 • Habitual Drug Taking 426 •
Drug Craving And Relapse 427
Current Concerns About The Drug Self-Administration
Paradigm 428
Unnatural Housing And Testing Conditions 429 •
Excessive Focus On Stimulants 429
A Noteworthy Case Of Addiction 429
The Case Of Sigmund Freud 429
Themes Revisited 430 • Key Terms 430
Part Six Disorders Of Cognition
And Emotion
16 Lateralization, Language,
And The Split Brain 431
The Left Brain And Right Brain
Cerebral Lateralization Of Function: Introduction 434
Discovery Of The Specific Contributions Of
Left-Hemisphere Damage To Aphasia And Apraxia 434
Tests Of Cerebral Lateralization 434
Sodium Amytal Test 434 • Dichotic Listening
Test 435 • Functional Brain Imaging 435
Discovery Of The Relation Between Speech Laterality
And Handedness 435
Sex Differences In Brain Lateralization 435
The Split Brain 436
Groundbreaking Experiment Of Myers
And Sperry 436
Commissurotomy In Humans With Epilepsy 438
Evidence That The Hemispheres Of Split-Brain
Patients Can Function Independently 439
Cross-Cuing 440
Doing Two Things At Once 440
Dual Mental Functioning And Conflict In Split-Brain Patients 441
The Case Of Peter, The Split-Brain Patient
Tormented By Conflict 441
Independence Of Split Hemispheres: Current
Perspective 442
Differences Between Left And Right Hemispheres 442
Examples Of Cerebral Lateralization Of Function 443
Superiority Of The Left Hemisphere In Controlling
Ipsilateral Movement 443 • Superiority Of The Right
Hemisphere In Spatial Ability 443 • Specialization
Of The Right Hemisphere For Emotion 443 • Superior
Musical Ability Of The Right Hemisphere 444 •
Hemispheric Differences In Memory 444
What Is Lateralized? Broad Clusters Of Abilities
Or Individual Cognitive Processes? 444
Anatomical Asymmetries Of The Brain 444
Evolution Of Cerebral Lateralization
And Language 446
Theories Of The Evolution Of Cerebral Lateralization 446
Analytic–Synthetic Theory 446 • Motor Theory 446 •
Linguistic Theory 446
The Case Of W.L., The Man Who Experienced
Aphasia For Sign Language 446
When Did Cerebral Lateralization Evolve? 446
Evolution Of Human Language 447
Vocal Communication In Nonhuman Primates 447 •
Motor Theory Of Speech Perception 447 •
Gestural Language 448
Cortical Localization Of Language:
Wernicke-Geschwind Model 449
Historical Antecedents Of The Wernicke-Geschwind
Model 449
The Wernicke-Geschwind Model 450
Wernicke-Geschwind Model: The Evidence 451
Effects Of Cortical Damage And Brain Stimulation
On Language Abilities 451
Evidence From Studies Of The Effects Of Cortical
Damage
452 • Evidence From Structural Neuroimaging
Studies 453 • Evidence From Studies Of Electrical
Stimulation Of The Cortex 453
Current Status Of The Wernicke-Geschwind Model 455
Cognitive Neuroscience Of Language 455
Three Premises That Define The Cognitive
Neuroscience Approach To Language 455
Functional Brain Imaging And The Localization
Of Language 456
Bavelier’s Fmri Study Of Reading 456 • Damasio’s
Pet Study Of Naming 457
Cognitive Neuroscience Of Dyslexia 457
Developmental Dyslexia: Causes And Neural
Mechanisms 458
Cognitive Neuroscience Of Deep And
Surface Dyslexia 458
The Case Of N.I., The Woman Who Read
With Her Right Hemisphere 459
Themes Revisited 459 • Key Terms 459
17 Biopsychology Of Emotion, Stress,
And Health 461
Fear, The Dark Side Of Emotion
Biopsychology Of Emotion: Introduction 462
Early Landmarks In The Biopsychological
Investigation Of Emotion 462
The Mind-Blowing Case Of Phineas Gage 462
Darwin’s Theory Of The Evolution Of Emotion 463 •
James-Lange And Cannon-Bard Theories 464 •
Sham Rage 464 • Limbic System And Emotion 465 •
Klüver-Bucy Syndrome 465
A Human Case Of Klüver-Bucy Syndrome 466
Emotions And The Autonomic Nervous System 466
Emotional Specificity Of The Autonomic Nervous
System 466 • Polygraphy 466
Emotions And Facial Expression 467
Universality Of Facial Expression 467 • Primary
Facial Expressions 467 • Facial Feedback
Hypothesis 467 • Voluntary Control Of Facial
Expression 468 • Facial Expressions: Current
Perspective 469
Fear, Defense, And Aggression 469
Types Of Aggressive And Defensive Behaviors 470
Aggression And Testosterone 471
Neural Mechanisms Of Fear Conditioning 472
Amygdala And Fear Conditioning 472
Contextual Fear Conditioning And The Hippocampus 472
Amygdala Complex And Fear Conditioning 473
Brain Mechanisms Of Human Emotion 474
Cognitive Neuroscience Of Emotion 474
Amygdala And Human Emotion 475
The Case Of S.P., The Woman Who Couldn’t
Perceive Fear 475
Medial Prefrontal Lobes And Human Emotion 475
Lateralization Of Emotion 476
Neural Mechanisms Of Human Emotion:
Current Perspectives 477
Stress And Health 477
The Stress Response 477
Animal Models Of Stress 478
Psychosomatic Disorders: The Case Of Gastric Ulcers 478
Psychoneuroimmunology: Stress, The Immune
System, And The Brain 479
Innate Immune System 479 • Adaptive Immune
System 479 • What Effect Does Stress Have On
Immune Function: Disruptive Or Beneficial? 480 •
How Does Stress Influence Immune Function? 480 •
Does Stress Affect Susceptibility To Infectious Disease? 481
Early Experience Of Stress 481
Stress And The Hippocampus 482
Conclusion 482
The Case Of Charles Whitman, The Texas Tower Sniper 482
Themes Revisited 483 • Key Terms 483
18 Biopsychology Of Psychiatric
Disorders 484
The Brain Unhinged
Schizophrenia 486
Schizophrenia: The Case Of Lena 486
What Is Schizophrenia? 486
Discovery Of The First Antipsychotic Drugs 487
The Dopamine Theory Of Schizophrenia 487
Schizophrenia: Beyond The Dopamine Theory 489
Atypical Antipsychotics 489 • Renewed Interest
In Hallucinogenic Drugs 489
Genetic And Epigenetic Mechanisms
Of Schizophrenia 490
Neural Bases Of Schizophrenia 490
Conclusion 491
Depressive Disorders 491
What Are Depressive Disorders? 491
The Case Of S.B., The Depressed Biopsychology Student 491
Antidepressant Drugs 492
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors 492 • Tricyclic
Antidepressants 492 • Selective Monoamine-Reuptake
Inhibitors 492 • Atypical Antidepressants 493 •
Nmda-Receptor Antagonists 493 • Effectiveness Of
Drugs In The Treatment Of Depressive Disorders 493
Brain Stimulation To Treat Depression 494
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 494 •
Deep Brain Stimulation 494
Theories Of Depression 495
Monoamine Theory Of Depression 495 •
Neuroplasticity Theory Of Depression 495
Genetic And Epigenetic Mechanisms Of Depression 495
Neural Bases Of Depression 496
Conclusion 496
Bipolar Disorder 496
What Is Bipolar Disorder? 496
The Case Of S.B. Revisited: The Biopsychology
Student With Bipolar Disorder 496
Mood Stabilizers 497
Theories Of Bipolar Disorder 498
Genetic And Epigenetic Mechanisms Of
Bipolar Disorder 498
Neural Bases Of Bipolar Disorder 498
Anxiety Disorders 499
The Case Of M.R., The Woman Who Was Afraid
To Go Out 499
Four Anxiety Disorders 499
Pharmacological Treatment Of Anxiety Disorders 499
Benzodiazepines 499 • Antidepressant Drugs 500 •
Pregabalin 500 • Conclusion 500
Animal Models Of Anxiety Disorders 500
Genetic And Epigenetic Mechanisms Of
Anxiety Disorders 500
Neural Bases Of Anxiety Disorders 501
Tourette’s Disorder 501
The Case Of R.G.—Barking Like A Dog 501
What Is Tourette’s Disorder? 501
Pharmacological Treatment Of Tourette’s Disorder 502
Genetic And Epigenetic Mechanisms Of Tourette’s Disorder 503
Neural Bases Of Tourette’s Disorder 503
The Case Of P.H., The Neuroscientist With
Tourette’s Disorder 503
Clinical Trials: Development Of New Psychotherapeutic Drugs 503
Clinical Trials: The Three Phases 504
Phase 1: Screening For Safety 504 • Phase 2:
Establishing The Testing Protocol 504 • Phase 3:
Final Testing 505
Controversial Aspects Of Clinical Trials 505
Requirement For Double-Blind Design And
Placebo Controls 505 • The Need For Active
Placebos 505 • Length Of Time Required 505 •
Financial Issues 505 • Targets Of
Psychopharmacology 506 • Lack Of Diversity 506
Effectiveness Of Clinical Trials 506
Conclusion 506
Conclusion Of The Case Of S.B.: The Biopsychology Student Who Took Control 507
Themes Revisited 507 • Key Terms 507
Epilogue 509
Appendixes 509
Glossary 513
References 535
Credits 585
Name Index 588
Subject Index 604