Conceptual Physics, Thirteenth Edition
By Paul G. Hewitt
Contents in Detail:
Conceptual Physics Photo Album 14
To the Student 16
To the Instructor 17
Acknowledgments 20
1 About Science 22
1.1 Scientific Measurements 23
How Eratosthenes Measured the Size of Earth 23
PRACTICING PHYSICS 25
Size of the Moon 26
Distance to the Moon 27
Distance to the Sun 28
Size of the Sun 29
Mathematics—The Language of Science 30
1.2 Scientific Methods 31
The Scientific Attitude 31
Dealing with Misconceptions 34
1.3 Science, Art, and Religion 35
FAKE SCIENCE 36
1.4 Science and Technology 36
RISK ASSESSMENT 37
1.5 Physics—The Basic Science 37
1.6 In Perspective 39
PART ONE
Mechanics 43
2 Newton’s First Law
of Motion–Inertia 44
2.1 Aristotle on Motion 45
ARISTOTLE (384–322 BC) 46
Copernicus and the Moving Earth 47
2.2 Galileo’s Experiments 47
Leaning Tower 47
Inclined Planes 47
GALILEO GALILEI (1564–1642) 48
2.3 Newton’s First Law of Motion 50
PERSONAL ESSAY 51
2.4 Net Force and Vectors 52
2.5 The Equilibrium Rule 53
PRACTICING PHYSICS 54
2.6 Support Force 55
2.7 Equilibrium of Moving Things 56
2.8 The Moving Earth 56
3 Linear Motion 64
3.1 Speed 65
Instantaneous Speed 65
Average Speed 66
Motion Is Relative 67
3.2 Velocity 67
Constant Velocity 68
Changing Velocity 68
3.3 Acceleration 68
Acceleration on Galileo’s Inclined Planes 70
3.4 Free Fall 71
How Fast 71
How Far 73
How Quickly “How Fast” Changes 75
HANG TIME 76
3.5 Velocity Vectors 76
4 Newton’s Second Law
of Motion 84
4.1 Forces 85
4.2 Friction 86
4.3 Mass and Weight 88
Mass Resists Acceleration 91
4.4 Newton’s Second Law of Motion 92
4.5 When Acceleration Is g—Free Fall 93
4.6 When Acceleration Is Less Than
g—Nonfree Fall 94
PROBLEM SOLVING 97
5 Newton’s Third Law
of Motion 104
5.1 Forces and Interactions 105
5.2 Newton’s Third Law of Motion 107
Simple Rule to Identify Action and Reaction 108
Defining Your System 108
5.3 Action and Reaction on Different Masses 110
PRACTICING PHYSICS: TUG-OF-WAR 112
5.4 Vectors and the Third Law 113
5.5 Summary of Newton’s Three Laws 117
6 Momentum 124
6.1 Momentum 125
6.2 Impulse 127
6.3 Impulse-Momentum Relationship 127
Case 1: Increasing Momentum 128
Case 2: Decreasing Momentum Over
a Long Time 128
Case 3: Decreasing Momentum Over
a Short Time 130
6.4 Bouncing 131
6.5 Conservation of Momentum 132
CONSERVATION LAWS 134
6.6 Collisions 135
PROBLEM SOLVING 137
6.7 More Complicated Collisions 138
7 Energy 146
7.1 Work 148
7.2 Power 150
Mechanical Energy 151
7.3 Potential Energy 151
7.4 Kinetic Energy 153
7.5 Work–Energy Theorem 154
7.6 Conservation of Energy 156
CIRCUS PHYSICS 157
JUNK SCIENCE 158
7.7 Machines 158
7.8 Efficiency 159
7.9 Major Sources of Energy 161
Recycled Energy 164
8 Rotational Motion 172
8.1 Circular Motion 173
WHEELS ON RAILROAD TRAINS 176
8.2 Centripetal Force 177
PRACTICING PHYSICS:
WATER-BUCKET SWING 178
8.3 Centrifugal Force 179
Centrifugal Force in a Rotating
Reference Frame 179
Simulated Gravity 180
8.4 Rotational Inertia 182
8.5 Torque 185
8.6 Center of Mass and Center
of Gravity 186
Locating the Center of Gravity 188
Stability 189
8.7 Angular Momentum 191
8.8 Conservation of Angular
Momentum 192
9 Gravity 204
9.1 The Universal Law of Gravity 205
9.2 The Universal Gravitational
Constant, G 207
9.3 Gravity and Distance:
The Inverse-Square Law 209
9.4 Weight and Weightlessness 210
9.5 Ocean Tides 212
TIDAL CALENDARS 215
Tides in the Earth and Atmosphere 216
Tidal Bulges on the Moon 216
9.6 Gravitational Fields 217
Gravitational Field Inside a Planet 218
Einstein’s Theory of Gravitation 220
9.7 Black Holes 220
9.8 Universal Gravitation 222
10 Projectile and
Satellite Motion 230
10.1 Projectile Motion 232
Projectiles Launched Horizontally 232
Projectiles Launched at an Angle 234
PRACTICING PHYSICS:
HANDS-ON DANGLING BEADS 235
HANG TIME REVISITED 238
10.2 Fast-Moving Projectiles—Satellites 238
10.3 Circular Satellite Orbits 240
10.4 Elliptical Orbits 242
WORLD MONITORING BY SATELLITE 244
10.5 Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion 244
FINDING YOUR WAY 245
10.6 Energy Conservation and
Satellite Motion 246
10.7 Escape Speed 247
PART TWO
Properties of Matter 257
11 The Atomic Nature of Matter 258
11.1 The Atomic Hypothesis 259
FALLING ALICE 260
11.2 Characteristics of Atoms 260
11.3 Atomic Imagery 262
11.4 Atomic Structure 264
The Elements 265
11.5 The Periodic Table of the Elements 266
Relative Sizes of Atoms 269
11.6 Isotopes 270
11.7 Molecules 271
11.8 Compounds and Mixtures 272
11.9 Antimatter 273
Dark Matter 274
12 Solids 280
12.1 Crystal Structure 281
CRYSTAL POWER 283
12.2 Density 283
12.3 Elasticity 284
12.4 Tension and Compression 286
PRACTICING PHYSICS: STICK STRENGTH 287
12.5 Arches 288
ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OR
3-D PRINTING 290
12.6 Scaling 290
13 Liquids 300
13.1 Pressure 301
13.2 Pressure in a Liquid 303
WATER AND ITS HISTORY 306
13.3 Buoyancy 307
13.4 Archimedes’ Principle 308
ARCHIMEDES AND THE GOLD CROWN 309
13.5 What Makes an Object Sink or Float? 309
13.6 Flotation 311
FLOATING MOUNTAINS 312
13.7 Pascal’s Principle 313
13.8 Surface Tension 315
13.9 Capillarity 316
14 Gases 324
14.1 The Atmosphere 325
14.2 Atmospheric Pressure 326
The Barometer 328
14.3 Boyle’s Law 330
14.4 Buoyancy of Air 332
14.5 Bernoulli’s Principle 333
Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle 334
NEWTONIAN AIR LIFT 335
PRACTICING PHYSICS 336
14.6 Plasma 337
Plasma in the Everyday World 337
Plasma Power 338
PART THREE
Heat 345
15 Temperature, Heat, and
Expansion 346
15.1 Temperature 347
15.2 Heat 349
Measuring Heat 351
15.3 Specific Heat Capacity 351
15.4 The High Specific Heat Capacity
of Water 352
15.5 Thermal Expansion 354
Expansion of Water 356
LIFE AT THE EXTREMES 358
16 Heat Transfer 366
16.1 Conduction 367
16.2 Convection 369
PRACTICING PHYSICS 371
16.3 Radiation 371
Emission of Radiant Energy 372
Absorption of Radiant Energy 373
Reflection of Radiant Energy 374
Cooling at Night by Radiation 375
16.4 Newton’s Law of Cooling 376
16.5 The Greenhouse Effect 377
16.6 Climate Change 378
16.7 Solar Power 379
SPREADING SOLAR ENERGY 379
16.8 Controlling Heat Transfer 380
17 Change of Phase 386
17.1 Evaporation 387
17.2 Condensation 389
Condensation in the Atmosphere 390
Fog and Clouds 391
17.3 Boiling 391
Geysers 392
Boiling Is a Cooling Process 392
Boiling and Freezing at the Same Time 393
17.4 Melting and Freezing 393
Regelation 394
17.5 Energy and Changes of Phase 395
PRACTICING PHYSICS 398
18 Thermodynamics 404
18.1 Absolute Zero 406
Internal Energy 407
18.2 First Law of Thermodynamics 408
18.3 Adiabatic Processes 409
18.4 Meteorology and the First Law 409
18.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics 412
Heat Engines 413
THERMODYNAMICS DRAMATIZED! 415
18.6 Energy Tends to Disperse 416
18.7 Entropy 418
PART FOUR
Sound 425
19 Vibrations and Waves 426
19.1 Good Vibrations 427
Vibration of a Pendulum 428
19.2 Wave Description 429
19.3 Wave Motion 430
PRACTICING PHYSICS 431
Transverse Waves 431
Longitudinal Waves 432
19.4 Wave Speed 433
19.5 Wave Interference 434
Standing Waves 434
19.6 Doppler Effect 436
19.7 Bow Waves 437
19.8 Shock Waves 439
20 Sound 446
20.1 Nature of Sound 447
Media That Transmit Sound 448
20.2 Sound in Air 448
LOUDSPEAKER 450
Speed of Sound in Air 450
PRACTICING PHYSICS 451
Energy in Sound Waves 451
MEASURING WAVES 452
20.3 Reflection of Sound 452
20.4 Refraction of Sound 453
20.5 Forced Vibrations 455
Natural Frequency 455
20.6 Resonance 456
20.7 Interference 457
20.8 Beats 459
RADIO BROADCASTS 460
21 Musical Sounds 466
21.1 Noise and Music 467
21.2 Pitch 468
21.3 Sound Intensity and Loudness 469
21.4 Quality 470
21.5 Musical Instruments 471
21.6 Fourier Analysis 473
21.7 From Analog to Digital 474
PART FIVE
Electricity and
Magnetism 481
22 Electrostatics 482
22.1 Electric Forces 484
22.2 Electric Charges 484
22.3 Conservation of Charge 485
ELECTRONICS TECHNOLOGY AND SPARKS 486
22.4 Coulomb’s Law 487
22.5 Conductors and Insulators 488
Semiconductors 489
Transistors 489
Superconductors 489
22.6 Charging 490
Charging by Friction and Contact 490
Charging by Induction 490
22.7 Charge Polarization 492
MICROWAVE OVEN 493
22.8 Electric Field 494
Electric Shielding 496
22.9 Electric Potential 498
Electric Energy Storage 500
Van de Graaff Generator 501
23 Electric Current 508
23.1 Flow of Charge and Electric Current 509
23.2 Voltage Sources 510
23.3 Electrical Resistance 511
23.4 Ohm’s Law 512
Ohm’s Law and Electric Shock 513
23.5 Direct Current and Alternating
Current 515
Converting AC to DC 516
23.6 Speed and Source of Electrons
in a Circuit 516
23.7 Electric Power 519
23.8 Electric Circuits 520
Series Circuits 520
Parallel Circuits 521
FUEL CELLS 522
COMBINING RESISTORS IN A CIRCUIT 523
Parallel Circuits and Overloading 523
Safety Fuses 524
24 Magnetism 532
24.1 Magnetism 533
24.2 Magnetic Poles 534
24.3 Magnetic Fields 535
24.4 Magnetic Domains 536
24.5 Electric Currents and Magnetic Fields 538
PRACTICING PHYSICS 539
24.6 Electromagnets 539
Superconducting Electromagnets 540
24.7 Magnetic Forces 540
On Moving Charged Particles 540
On Current-Carrying Wires 541
Electric Meters 541
Electric Motors 542
24.8 Earth’s Magnetic Field 543
Cosmic Rays 544
24.9 Biomagnetism 545
MRI: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 546
25 Electromagnetic Induction 550
25.1 Electromagnetic Induction 551
25.2 Faraday’s Law 553
25.3 Generators and Alternating Current 554
25.4 Power Production 555
Turbogenerator Power 555
MHD Power 555
25.5 Transformers 556
25.6 Self-Induction 559
25.7 Magnetic Braking 560
25.8 Power Transmission 560
25.9 Field Induction 561
PART SIX
Light 569
26 Properties of Light 570
26.1 Electromagnetic Waves 572
26.2 Electromagnetic Wave Velocity 572
26.3 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 573
FRACTAL ANTENNAS 575
26.4 Transparent Materials 575
26.5 Speed of Light in a Transparent
Medium 577
26.6 Opaque Materials 579
Shadows 579
26.7 Solar and Lunar Eclipses 580
26.8 Seeing Light—The Eye 583
27 Color 592
27.1 Color in Our World 593
27.2 Selective Reflection 594
27.3 Selective Transmission 595
27.4 Mixing Colored Lights 596
Primary Colors 597
Complementary Colors 597
27.5 Mixing Colored Pigments 598
The Color Black 600
27.6 Sky Colors 600
Why the Sky Is Blue 601
Why Sunsets Are Red 602
PRACTICING PHYSICS 603
Why an Eclipsed Moon Is Red 603
Why Clouds Are White 604
27.7 Water Colors 605
Why Water Is Greenish Blue 605
Why Deep Water Is Black 606
28 Reflection and Refraction 612
28.1 Reflection 613
Principle of Least Time 614
28.2 Law of Reflection 615
Plane Mirrors 615
Diffuse Reflection 617
28.3 Refraction 618
Index of Refraction 620
Mirage 621
28.4 Cause of Refraction 622
ISAAC NEWTON AND HIS STUDY
OF LIGHT 623
28.5 Dispersion 624
28.6 The Rainbow 625
Alterations in Sky Brightness 626
28.7 Total Internal Reflection 627
28.8 Lenses 629
Image Formation by a Lens 631
PINHOLE CAMERA 631
28.9 Lens Defects 633
29 Light Waves 642
29.1 Huygens’ Principle 643
29.2 Diffraction 645
X-Ray Diffraction 647
29.3 Superposition and Interference 648
Young’s Double Slit Experiment 648
29.4 Single-Color Thin-Film Interference 651
Interference Colors 652
PRACTICING PHYSICS 654
29.5 Polarization 654
Three-Dimensional Viewing 656
29.6 Holography 658
30 Light Emission 664
30.1 Light Emission 665
30.2 Excitation 666
30.3 Emission Spectra 668
30.4 Incandescence 670
30.5 Absorption Spectra 671
30.6 Fluorescence 672
30.7 Phosphorescence 674
30.8 Lamps 675
Incandescent Lamp 675
Fluorescent Lamp 675
Light-Emitting Diode 676
30.9 Lasers 677
31 Light Quanta 686
31.1 Birth of the Quantum Theory 687
31.2 Quantization and Planck’s Constant 688
CONSTANTS IN NATURE 690
31.3 Photoelectric Effect 690
Photovoltaic Cells 692
31.4 Wave–Particle Duality 693
31.5 Double-Slit Experiment 694
31.6 Particles as Waves:
Electron Diffraction 695
31.7 Uncertainty Principle 698
31.8 Complementarity 700
PREDICTABILITY AND CHAOS 701
PART SEVEN
Atomic and Nuclear
Physics 707
32 The Atom and the Quantum 708
32.1 Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus 709
32.2 Discovery of the Electron 710
UNIQUE OR IDENTICAL 713
32.3 Atomic Spectra: Clues to
Atomic Structure 713
32.4 Bohr Model of the Atom 714
32.5 Explanation of Quantized Energy
Levels: Electron Waves 716
32.6 Quantum Mechanics 717
32.7 Correspondence Principle 719
HIGGS BOSON 720
33 The Atomic Nucleus and
Radioactivity 724
33.1 X-rays and Radioactivity 725
33.2 Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Rays 727
33.3 Neutrinos 728
33.4 Environmental Radiation 729
Units of Radiation 730
Doses of Radiation 731
Radioactive Tracers 732
33.5 The Atomic Nucleus and the
Strong Force 732
33.6 Radioactive Half-Life 735
33.7 Radiation Detectors 736
33.8 Transmutation of Elements 738
Natural Transmutation 738
Artificial Transmutation 740
33.9 Radiometric Dating 740
FOOD IRRADIATION 742
34 Nuclear Fission and Fusion 748
34.1 Nuclear Fission 750
34.2 Nuclear Fission Reactors 752
PLUTONIUM 754
34.3 The Breeder Reactor 755
The Thorium Reactor 756
34.4 Fission Power 756
34.5 Mass–Energy Equivalence 758
PHYSICS AT AIRPORT SECURITY 761
34.6 Nuclear Fusion 762
34.7 Controlling Fusion 764
PART EIGHT
Relativity 771
35 Special Theory of Relativity 772
35.1 Motion Is Relative 773
Michelson–Morley Experiment 774
35.2 Postulates of the Special Theory
of Relativity 775
35.3 Simultaneity 776
35.4 Spacetime and Time Dilation 778
CLOCKWATCHING ON A
TROLLEY CAR RIDE 781
The Twin Trip 782
35.5 Addition of Velocities 788
Space Travel 788
CENTURY HOPPING 790
35.6 Length Contraction 790
35.7 Relativistic Momentum 792
35.8 Mass, Energy, and E 5 mc 2 793
35.9 The Correspondence Principle 796
36 General Theory of Relativity 802
36.1 Principle of Equivalence 804
36.2 Bending of Light by Gravity 805
36.3 Gravity and Time: Gravitational
Red Shift 807
36.4 Gravity and Space: Motion
of Mercury 809
36.5 Gravity, Space, and a New Geometry 810
36.6 Gravitational Waves 812
36.7 Newtonian and Einsteinian
Gravitation 813
AUTHOR PROFILE 818
APPENDIX A
On Measurement and Unit Conversions 820
APPENDIX B
More About Motion 824
APPENDIX C
Graphing 828
APPENDIX D
Vector Applications 831
APPENDIX E
Exponential Growth and Doubling Time 834
Odd-Numbered Answers 837
Glossary 867
Credits 885
Index 891