Principles of Biology, 4th Edition by Robert J Brooker, Eric P Widmaier, Linda E Graham and Peter D Stiling

By

Principles of Biology, Fourth Edition

By Robert J. Brooker, Eric P. Widmaier, Linda E. Graham and Peter D. Stiling

Principles of Biology, Fourth Edition

Detailed Table of Contents:

CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to Biology 1

1.1 Principles of Biology and the Levels of Biological

Organization 2

1.2 Biological Evolution 7

Evolutionary Connections: The Frequency of the Tuskless

Elephant Appears to Be Increasing in Elephant Populations Due to

Poaching 9

1.3 Classification of Living Things 10

1.4 Biology as a Scientific Discipline 13

UNIT I Chemistry

Feature Investigation: Anfinsen Showed That the Primary

Structure of Ribonuclease Determines Its Three-Dimensional

Structure 52

Evolutionary Connections: Proteins Contain Functional

Domains 54

3.7 Nucleic Acids 55

UNIT II Cells

CHAPTER 2

The Chemical Basis of Life I:

Atoms, Molecules, and Water 21

2.1 Atoms 22

2.2 Chemical Bonds and Molecules 25

2.3 Chemical Reactions 29

2.4 Properties of Water 30

Quantitative Analysis: Concentrations of Molecules in Solution

Can Be Defined by Mass and Moles 31

2.5 pH and Buffers 34

CHAPTER 3

The Chemical Basis of Life II:

Organic Molecules 37

3.1 The Carbon Atom and Carbon-Containing

Molecules 38

3.2 Synthesis and Breakdown of Organic Molecules 40

3.3 Overview of the Four Major Classes of Organic

Molecules Found in Living Cells 40

3.4 Carbohydrates 41

3.5 Lipids 44

3.6 Proteins 47

CHAPTER 4

Evolutionary Origin of Cells

and Their General Features 59

4.1 Origin of Living Cells on Earth 60

4.2 Microscopy 66

4.3 Overview of Cell Structure and Function 69

4.4 The Cytosol 74

4.5 The Nucleus and Endomembrane System 79

4.6 Semiautonomous Organelles 85

Evolutionary Connections: Mitochondria and Chloroplasts Are

Derived from Ancient Symbiotic Relationships 88

4.7 Protein Sorting to Organelles 89

4.8 Extracellular Matrix and Plant Cell Walls 89

4.9 Systems Biology of Cells: A Summary 94

CHAPTER 5

Membranes: The Interface Between Cells

and Their Environment 98

5.1 Membrane Structure 99

5.2 Fluidity of Membranes 100

5.3 Overview of Membrane Transport 103

5.4 Proteins That Carry Out

Membrane Transport 107

Feature Investigation: Agre Discovered That Osmosis Occurs

More Quickly in Cells with a Channel That Allows the Facilitated

Diffusion of Water 108

5.5 Intercellular Channels 113

5.6 Exocytosis and Endocytosis 114

5.7 Cell Junctions 117

CHAPTER 6

How Cells Utilize Energy 121

6.1 Energy and Chemical Reactions 122

6.2 Enzymes 124

Quantitative Analysis: Enzyme Function Is Influenced by

Substrate Concentration and by Inhibitors 126

6.3 Metabolic Pathways 129

6.4 Overview of Cellular Respiration 132

6.5 Glycolysis 134

6.6 Breakdown of Pyruvate 137

6.7 Citric Acid Cycle 138

6.8 Oxidative Phosphorylation 139

Feature Investigation: Yoshida and Kinosita Demonstrated

That the γ Subunit of ATP Synthase Spins 143

6.9 Connections Among Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat

Metabolism 145

6.10 Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation 146

CHAPTER 7

How Cells Capture Light Energy

via Photosynthesis 150

7.1 Overview of Photosynthesis 151

7.2 Reactions That Harness Light Energy 153

7.3 Molecular Features of Photosystems 159

7.4 Synthesizing Carbohydrates via the Calvin Cycle 161

Feature Investigation: The Calvin Cycle Was Determined

by Isotope-Labeling Methods 163

7.5 Variations in Photosynthesis 165

Evolutionary Connections: C4 and CAM Plants Have Evolved a

Mechanism to Minimize Photorespiration 165

CHAPTER 8

How Cells Communicate with Each Other

and with the Environment 169

8.1 General Features of Cell Communication 170

8.2 Receptor Activation 173

Quantitative Analysis: Receptors Have a Measurable Affinity for

Their Ligands 174

8.3 Cell Surface Receptors 175

8.4 Intracellular Receptors 177

8.5 Signal Transduction and Cellular Response via an

Enzyme-Linked Receptor 178

Evolutionary Connections: Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Are Found

in Choanoflagellates and Animals 180

8.6 Signal Transduction and Cellular Response via a

G-Protein-Coupled Receptor 181

8.7 Crosstalk Among Signal Transduction Pathways 184

UNIT III Genetics

CHAPTER 9

The Information of Life: DNA and RNA Structure, DNA

Replication, and Chromosome Structure 189

9.1 Properties and Identification of the

Genetic Material 190

Feature Investigation: Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty

Used Purification Methods to Reveal That DNA Is the

Genetic Material 191

9.2 Nucleic Acid Structure 193

9.3 Discovery of the Double-Helix Structure of DNA 197

9.4 Overview of DNA Replication 199

9.5 Molecular Mechanism of DNA Replication 202

9.6 Molecular Structure of Eukaryotic Chromosomes 206

CHAPTER 10

The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes I:

Transcription and Translation 211

10.1 Overview of Gene Expression 212

10.2 Transcription 213

10.3 RNA Modifications in Eukaryotes 215

10.4 Translation and the Genetic Code 218

Feature Investigation: Nirenberg and Leder Found That an RNA

Triplet Can Promote the Binding of a tRNA to a Ribosome 220

10.5 The Machinery of Translation 222

Evolutionary Connections: Comparisons of Small Subunit

rRNAs Among Different Species Provide a Basis for Establishing

Evolutionary Relationships 226

10.6 The Stages of Translation 227

CHAPTER 11

The Expression of Genetic Information via Genes II:

Non-coding RNAs 231

11.1 Overview of Non-coding RNAs 232

11.2 Role of Non-coding RNAs in Eukaryotic DNA

Replication 236

11.3 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Chromatin Structure and

Transcription 238

11.4 Effects of Non-coding RNAs on Translation and mRNA

Degradation 239

Feature Investigation: Fire and Mello Showed That Double-

Stranded RNA Is More Potent Than Antisense RNA in Silencing

mRNA 239

11.5 Non-coding RNAs and Protein Sorting 243

11.6 Non-coding RNAs and Genome Defense 244

11.7 Roles of Non-coding RNAs in Human Disease and Plant

Health 246

CHAPTER 12

The Control of Genetic Information via Gene

Regulation 250

12.1 Overview of Gene Regulation 251

12.2 Regulation of Transcription in Bacteria 254

12.3 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes: Roles of

Transcription Factors 258

Evolutionary Connections: Transcription in Archaea Is a

Simplified Version of Eukaryotic Transcription 261

12.4 Regulation of Transcription in Eukaryotes: Changes in

Chromatin Structure and DNA Methylation 262

12.5 Regulation of RNA Splicing and Translation in

Eukaryotes 266

Quantitative Analysis: Alternative Splicing Is More Prevalent in

Complex Eukaryotic Species 267

CHAPTER 13

Altering the Genetic Material: Mutation, DNA Repair,

and Cancer 271

13.1 Consequences of Mutations 272

13.2 Causes of Mutations 275

Feature Investigation: The Lederbergs Used Replica Plating to

Show That Mutations Are Random Events 275

Quantitative Analysis: Testing Methods Determine If an Agent Is

a Mutagen 278

13.3 DNA Repair 280

13.4 Cancer 282

CHAPTER 14

How Eukaryotic Cells Sort and Transmit Chromosomes:

Mitosis and Meiosis 289

14.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle 290

14.2 Mitotic Cell Division 294

Evolutionary Connections: Cell Division in Bacteria Involves

FtsZ, a Protein Related to Eukaryotic Tubulin 297

14.3 Meiosis 299

14.4 Sexual Reproduction 304

Quantitative Analysis: Meiosis Enhances Genetic Diversity 305

14.5 Variation in Chromosome Structure and Number 307

CHAPTER 15

Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to

Offspring I: Patterns That Follow Mendel’s Laws 313

15.1 Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance 314

Quantitative Analysis: A Punnett Square Is Used to Predict the

Outcome of Crosses 318

15.2 Chromosome Theory of Inheritance 320

15.3 Pedigree Analysis of Human Traits 323

15.4 Variations in Inheritance Patterns and Their Molecular

Basis 324

15.5 Sex Chromosomes and X-Linked Inheritance

Patterns 328

CHAPTER 16

Transmission of Genetic Information from Parents to

Offspring II: Epigenetics, Linkage, and Extranuclear

Inheritance 331

16.1 Overview of Epigenetics 332

16.2 Epigenetics: Genomic Imprinting 333

16.3 Epigenetics: X-Chromosome Inactivation 335

16.4 Epigenetics: Effects of Environmental Agents 338

16.5 Extranuclear Inheritance: Organelle Genomes 341

Evolutionary Connections: Chloroplast and Mitochondrial

Genomes Are Relatively Small but Contain Genes That Code

Important Proteins 341

16.6 Linkage of Genes on the Same Chromosome 344

Feature Investigation: Bateson and Punnett’s Crosses of Sweet Peas

Showed That Genes Do Not Always Assort Independently 344

Quantitative Analysis: A Chi Square Test Can Be Used to

Distinguish Between Linkage and Independent Assortment 347

CHAPTER 17

The Simpler Genetic Systems of Viruses,

Bacteria, and Archaea 351

17.1 General Properties of Viruses 352

17.2 Viral Reproductive Cycles 353

17.3 Genetic Properties of Bacteria and Archaea 360

17.4 Gene Transfer Between Prokaryotic Cells 364

Evolutionary Connections: Horizontal Gene Transfer Is the

Transfer of Genes Between the Same or Different Species 367

CHAPTER 18

Genetic Technologies: How Biologists Study

Genes and Genomes 370

18.1 Gene Cloning 371

18.2 Genomics: Techniques for Studying and Altering

Genomes 377

18.3 Bacterial and Archaeal Genomes 384

18.4 Eukaryotic Genomes 386

Evolutionary Connections: Gene Duplications Provide Additional

Material for Genome Evolution, Sometimes Leading to the

Formation of Gene Families 387

18.5 Repetitive Sequences and Transposable Elements 389

UNIT IV Evolution

CHAPTER 19

Evolution of Life I: How Populations Change from

Generation to Generation 397

19.1 Overview of Evolution 398

19.2 Evidence of Evolutionary Change 401

19.3 Genes in Populations 409

Evolutionary Connections: Genes Are Usually Polymorphic 409

Quantitative Analysis: The Hardy-Weinberg Equation Relates

Allele and Genotype Frequencies in a Population 410

19.4 Natural Selection 412

Feature Investigation: The Grants Observed Natural Selection in

Galápagos Finches 416

19.5 Genetic Drift 419

19.6 Migration and Nonrandom Mating 423

CHAPTER 20

Evolution of Life II: The Emergence of

New Species 426

20.1 Identification of Species 427

20.2 Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms 429

Feature Investigation: Podos Found That an Adaptation for Feeding

May Have Promoted Reproductive Isolation in Finches 432

20.3 Mechanisms of Speciation 434

20.4 Evo-Devo: Evolutionary Developmental Biology 439

Evolutionary Connections: The Hox Genes Have Been Important

in the Evolution of a Variety of Body Patterns 441

CHAPTER 21

How Biologists Classify Species and Study Their

Evolutionary Relationships 445

21.1 Taxonomy 446

Evolutionary Connections: Every Species Is Placed into a

Taxonomic Hierarchy 446

21.2 Phylogenetic Trees 449

21.3 Cladistics 453

Quantitative Analysis: The Principle of Parsimony Is Used to

Choose from Among Possible Cladograms 455

21.4 Molecular Clocks 456

21.5 Horizontal Gene Transfer 459

CHAPTER 22

The History of Life on Earth and Human

Evolution 463

22.1 The Fossil Record 464

Quantitative Analysis: Radioisotopes Provide a Way to Date

Fossils 465

22.2 History of Life on Earth 466

Evolutionary Connections: The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells

Involved a Union Between Bacterial and Archaeal Cells 470

22.3 Human Evolution 476

Evolutionary Connections: Comparing the Genomes of Humans

and Chimpanzees 477

UNIT V Diversity

Mark Dadswell/Getty Images

CHAPTER 23

Diversity of Microbial Life: Archaea, Bacteria, Protists,

and Fungi 489

23.1 Introduction to Microorganisms 490

23.2 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Archaea 493

23.3 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Bacteria 494

CHAPTER 27

23.4 Diversity in Bacterial Cell Structure and

Metabolism 497

23.5 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Protists 501

Evolutionary Connections: Primary Plastids and Primary

Endosymbiosis 506

23.6 Diversity and Ecological Importance of Fungi 511

23.7 Technological Applications of Microorganisms 518

CHAPTER 24

Microbiomes: Microbial Systems on and Around Us 521

24.1 Microbiomes: Diversity of Microbes and Functions 522

24.2 Microbiomes of Physical Systems 525

24.3 Host-Associated Microbiomes 527

Feature Investigation: Grieneisen and Colleagues Discovered That

Detecting Microbiome Heritability Requires Large Samples Taken Over

Time 533

24.4 Engineering Animal and Plant Microbiomes 535

CHAPTER 25

Plant Evolution: How Plant Diversification Changed Planet

Earth 538

25.1 Ancestry and Diversity of Land Plants 539

25.2 An Evolutionary History of Land Plants 546

25.3 Diversity of Modern Gymnosperms 549

25.4 Diversity of Modern Angiosperms 552

Evolutionary Connections: Flower Organs Evolved from Leaflike

Structures 554

Feature Investigation: Hillig and Mahlberg Analyzed Secondary

Metabolites to Explore Species Diversification in the Genus

Cannabis 557

25.5 Human Influences on Angiosperm Diversification 560

CHAPTER 26

Invertebrates: The Vast Array of Animal Life

Without a Backbone 562

26.1 Characteristics of Animals 563

26.2 Animal Classification 564

Evolutionary Connections: The Protostomes Consist of Two Major

Clades—the Ecdysozoa and the Lophotrochozoa 567

26.3 Ctenophores: The Earliest Animals 570

26.4 Porifera: The Sponges 571

26.5 Cnidaria: Jellyfish and Other Radially Symmetric

Animals 572

26.6 Lophotrochozoa: The Flatworms, Rotifers, Bryozoans,

Brachiopods, Mollusks, and Annelids 574

Quantitative Analysis: How Many Flukes? 576

26.7 Ecdysozoa: The Nematodes and Arthropods 582

26.8 Deuterostomia: The Echinoderms and Chordates 590

CHAPTER 27

Vertebrates: Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles, and

Mammals 596

27.1 Vertebrates: Chordates with a Backbone 597

27.2 Cyclostomes: Jawless Fishes 597

27.3 Gnathostomes: Jawed Vertebrates 600

27.4 Tetrapods: Gnathostomes with Four Limbs 604

Feature Investigation: Davis and Colleagues Provided a Genetic-

Developmental Explanation for Limb Length in Tetrapods 605

27.5 Amniotes: Tetrapods with a Desiccation-Resistant

Egg 608

27.6 Mammals: Milk-Producing Amniotes 613

NIT VI Flowering Plants

CHAPTER 28

An Introduction to Flowering Plant Form and

Function 619

28.1 From Seed to Seed: The Life of a Flowering

Plant 620

28.2 Plant Growth and Development 624

28.3 The Shoot System: Stem and Leaf Adaptations 628

Feature Investigation: Lawren Sack and Colleagues Showed That

Palmate Venation Confers Tolerance of Leaf Vein Breakage 631

28.4 Root System Adaptations 636

CHAPTER 29

How Flowering Plants Sense and Interact with Their

Environments 640

29.1 Overview of Plant Behavioral Responses 641

29.2 Plant Hormones 644

Evolutionary Connections: Plant Gibberellin Responses Evolved

in a Stepwise Manner 646

29.3 Plant Responses to Light 648

29.4 Plant Responses to Gravity and Touch 651

29.5 Plant Responses to Attack 653

CHAPTER 30

How Flowering Plants Obtain and Transport Water, Mineral

Nutrients, and Organic Compounds 658

30.1 Plant Nutritional Requirements 659

30.2 The Roles of Soil in Plant Nutrition 662

30.3 Transport at the Cellular Level 666

Quantitative Analysis: The Water Potential Equation Can Be Used

to Predict Cellular Water Status 670

Evolutionary Connections: Plants Have Evolved Cellular

Adaptations to Drought Stress 670

30.4 Plant Transport at the Tissue Level 671

30.5 Long-Distance Transport in Plants 673

CHAPTER 31

How Flowering Plants Reproduce and Develop 682

31.1 An Overview of Flowering Plant Reproduction 683

31.2 Flower Production, Structure, and Development 687

31.3 Male and Female Gametophytes and Double

Fertilization 690

31.4 Embryo, Seed, Fruit, and Seedling Development 692

31.5 Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants 696

Evolutionary Connections: Gene Expression Changes Explain the

Evolution of Plantlets in Kalanchoë 697

UNIT VII Animals

CHAPTER 32

General Features of Animal Bodies, and Homeostasis as a

Key Principle of Animal Biology 701

32.1 Organization of Animal Bodies 702

Evolutionary Connections: Organ Development and Function Are

Controlled by Hox Genes 707

32.2 Relationship Between Structure and Function 707

32.3 General Principles of Homeostasis 708

32.4 Homeostatic Regulation of Body Temperature 711

32.5 Homeostasis of Internal Fluids 716

Feature Investigation: Cade and Colleagues Discovered Why

Athletes’ Performances Wane on Hot Days 718

CHAPTER 33

Neuroscience I: The Structure, Function, and Evolution of

Nervous Systems 722

33.1 Cellular Components of Nervous Systems 723

33.2 Electrical Properties of Neurons and the Resting

Membrane Potential 726

Quantitative Analysis: An Ion’s Equilibrium Potential Depends on

Its Concentration Gradient 728

33.3 Generation and Transmission of Electrical Signals Along

Neurons 729

33.4 Communication at Synapses 734

33.5 Evolution and Development of Nervous Systems 737

Evolutionary Connections: Animals Evolved Increasingly

Complex Nervous Systems 737

33.6 Structure and Function of the Nervous Systems of

Vertebrates 740

Feature Investigation: Gaser and Schlaug Discovered That the

Sizes of Certain Brain Structures Differ Between

Musicians and Nonmusicians 745

33.7 Impact on Public Health 747

CHAPTER 34

Neuroscience II: How Sensory Systems Allow Animals to

Interact with the Environment 752

34.1 Introduction to Sensation 753

34.2 Mechanoreception 754

34.3 Thermoreception and Nociception 759

34.4 Photoreception 760

Evolutionary Connections: Color Vision Is an Ancient Adaptation

in Animals 763

34.5 Chemoreception 767

Feature Investigation: Buck and Axel Discovered a Family

of Olfactory Receptor Proteins That Bind Specific Odor

Molecules 768

34.6 Impact on Public Health 770

CHAPTER 35

How Muscles and Skeletons Are Adaptations for

Movement, Support, and Protection 774

35.1 Types of Animal Skeletons 775

35.2 Skeletal Muscle Structure and the Mechanism of

Force Generation 777

Evolutionary Connections: Myosins Are an Ancient and Diverse

Family of Proteins 780

35.3 Types of Skeletal Muscle Fibers and Their

Functions 784

35.4 Impact on Public Health 786

CHAPTER 36

Circulatory and Respiratory Systems: Transporting Solutes

and Exchanging Gases 789

36.1 Types of Circulatory Systems 790

Evolutionary Connections: A Four-Chambered Heart Evolved

from Simple Contractile Tubes 792

36.2 The Composition of Blood 793

36.3 The Four-Chambered Vertebrate Heart and Its

Function 795

36.4 Blood Vessels 799

36.5 Relationship Among Blood Pressure, Blood Flow, and

Resistance 802

Quantitative Analysis: Cardiac Output and Resistance Determine

Blood Pressure 803

36.6 Physical Properties of Gases 805

36.7 Types of Respiratory Systems 806

36.8 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Respiratory

System 809

36.9 Mechanisms of Gas Transport in Blood 812

Quantitative Analysis: The Ability of Hemoglobin to Bind Oxygen

Is Affected by Factors Such as Temperature, CO2, and pH 813

36.10 Control of Ventilation 815

36.11 Impact on Public Health 816

CHAPTER 37

Digestive and Excretory Systems:

Maintaining Nutrient, Water, and Energy Balance

and Removing Waste 822

37.1 Overview of Animal Nutrition 823

37.2 General Principles of Digestion and Absorption of

Nutrients 826

37.3 Vertebrate Digestive Systems 827

Evolutionary Connections: Evolution and Genetics Explain

Lactose Intolerance 833

37.4 Nutrient Use and Storage 837

37.5 Regulation of the Absorptive and Postabsorptive States in

Vertebrates 839

37.6 Excretory Systems in Different Animal Groups 842

37.7 Structure and Function of the Mammalian Kidneys 845

37.8 Impact on Public Health 851

Feature Investigation: Marshall, Warren, and Coworkers

Demonstrated a Link Between Bacterial Infection and Ulcers 852

CHAPTER 38

How Endocrine Systems Influence the Activities of

All Other Organ Systems 857

38.1 Types of Hormones and Their Mechanisms of Action 858

38.2 Links Between the Endocrine and Nervous Systems 861

38.3 Hormonal Control of Metabolism and Energy Balance 863

Feature Investigation: Banting, Best, Collip, and MacLeod Were

the First to Isolate Active Insulin 867

38.4 Hormonal Control of Mineral Balance 870

Evolutionary Connections: Hormones and Receptors Evolved as

Tightly Integrated Molecular Systems 872

38.5 Hormonal Control of Growth and Development 874

38.6 Hormonal Control of Reproduction 876

38.7 Impact on Public Health 876

CHAPTER 39

The Production of Offspring: Reproduction and

Development 879

39.1 Overview of Sexual and Asexual Reproduction 880

Feature Investigation: Paland and Lynch Provided Evidence That

Sexual Reproduction May Promote the Elimination of Harmful

Mutations in Populations 881

39.2 Gametogenesis and Fertilization 883

39.3 Human Reproductive Structure and Function 887

39.4 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals 892

39.5 General Events of Embryonic Development 895

39.6 Impact on Public Health 901

CHAPTER 40

Immune Systems: How Animals Defend Against Pathogens

and Other Dangers 905

40.1 Types of Pathogens 906

40.2 Innate Immunity 907

Evolutionary Connections: Innate Immune Responses

Require Proteins That Recognize Features Common to Many

Pathogens 909

Feature Investigation: Lemaitre and Colleagues Identified an

Immune Function for Toll Protein in Drosophila 910

40.3 Adaptive Immunity in Vertebrates 912

40.4 Impact on Public Health 923

CHAPTER 41

An Example of a System-Wide Response to a Challenge

to Homeostasis 927

41.1 Effects of Hemorrhage on Blood Pressure and Organ

Function 928

41.2 The Rapid Phase of the Homeostatic Response to

Hemorrhage 930

Evolutionary Connections: Baroreceptors May Have Evolved to

Minimize Increases in Blood Pressure in Vertebrates 932

41.3 The Secondary Phase of the Homeostatic Response to

Hemorrhage 934

41.4 Impact on Public Health 938

UNIT VIII Ecology

Kirill KukhmarITAR-TASS News Agency/Alamy Stock Photo

CHAPTER 42

Behavioral Ecology: The Struggle to Find Food and Mates

and to Pass on Genes 943

42.1 The Influence of Genetics

and Learning on Behavior 944

Feature Investigation: Tinbergen’s Experiments Showed That

Digger Wasps Learn the Positions of Landmarks to Find Their

Nests 945

42.2 Communication 948

42.3 Living in Groups and Game Theory 950

Quantitative Analysis: Game Theory Establishes Whether

Individuals Fight or Flee 952

42.4 Altruism 953

42.5 Mating Systems 956

CHAPTER 43

Population Growth and Species Interactions 960

43.1 Measuring Population Size and Density 961

Quantitative Analysis: Mark-Recapture Can Be Used to Estimate

Population Size 962

43.2 Demography 963

43.3 How Populations Grow 966

43.4 Species Interactions 968

Evolutionary Connections: Organisms Have Evolved Many

Defenses Against Natural Enemies 971

43.5 The Spread of Pathogens 975

CHAPTER 44

Communities and Ecosystems: Ecological Organization

at Large Scales 980

44.1 Patterns of Species Richness and Species Diversity 981

Quantitative Analysis: Calculating Species Diversity 983

44.2 Species Richness and Community Stability 985

44.3 Succession: Community Change 986

44.4 Island Biogeography 989

Feature Investigation: Simberloff and Wilson’s Experiments

Tested the Predictions of the Equilibrium Model of Island

Biogeography 991

44.5 Food Webs and Energy Flow 993

44.6 Biomass Production in Ecosystems 997

CHAPTER 45

Biomes: How Climate Affects the Distribution of

Species on Earth 1003

45.1 Climate and Its Relationship to Biological

Communities 1004

45.2 Major Biomes 1010

Evolutionary Connections: Plate Tectonics and Biogeography

Help to Explain Species Distribution 1014

CHAPTER 46

The Age of Humans 1017

46.1 Human Population Growth 1018

46.2 Global Warming and Climate Change 1021

46.3 Pollution and Human Influences on Biogeochemical

Cycles 1024

Feature Investigation: Stiling and Drake’s Experiments with

Elevated CO2 Showed an Increase in Plant Growth but a Decrease in

Herbivory 1025

46.4 Pollution and Biomagnification 1030

46.5 Habitat Destruction 1032

46.6 Overexploitation 1035

46.7 Invasive Species 1038

CHAPTER 47

Biodiversity and Conservation Biology 1043

47.1 Genetic, Species, and Ecosystem Diversity 1044

47.2 Value of Biodiversity to Human Welfare 1045

47.3 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function 1047

47.4 Conservation Strategies 1049

Appendix A Periodic Table of the Elements A-1

Appendix B Answers to In-Chapter and End-of-Chapter Questions B-1

Index I-1

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